Semiconductor Basics

Chapter 1

Atomic Structure

Elements are made of atoms

110 Elements; each has an atomic

structure
Today, quarks and leptons, and their
antiparticles, are candidates for being
the fundamental building blocks from
which all else is made!

Bohr Model

Atoms have planetary structure

Atoms are made of nucleus (Protons
(+) & Neutrons) and electrons (-)

110 th element is called Darmstadtium (Ds)

Atomic Structure

Atoms go around the nucleolus in their orbits

discrete distances
Each orbit has some energy level
The closer the orbit to the nucleus the less
energy it has
Group of orbits called shell
Electrons on the same shell have similar energy
level
Valence shell is the outmost shell
Valence shell has valence electrons ready to
be freed
Number of electrons (Ne) on each shell (n)
Ne = 2n2

First shell has 2 electrons

Second shell has 8 electrons (not shown here)

Valence Shell

Atoms are made of valence

shell and core
Core includes nucleus and
other inner shells

For a Carbon atom the atomic

number is 6
Core charge = 6 P + 2 e =
(+6)+(-2)=(+4)
Remember the first shell has 2
electrons

Elements

Basic categories

Conductors

Examples: Copper, silver

One valence electron , the e
can easily be freed

Always free
electrons

Insulators

Free
electrons

Valence electrons are tightly

bounded to the atom

Semiconductors

Silicon, germanium (single

element)
Gallium arsenide, indium
phosphide (compounds)
They can act as conductors or
insulators

Conduction band is
where the electron
leaves the valence shell
and becomes free
Valence band is where
the outmost shell is

Semiconductors

Remember the further away from the

nucleus the less energy is required
to free the electrons
Germanium is less stable

Less energy is required to make the

electron to jump to the conduction
band

When atoms combine to form a solid,

they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical patterns
Semiconductor atoms (silicon) form
crystals
Intrinsic crystals have no impurities

Conduction Electrons and Holes

Electrons exist only within

prescribed energy bands
These bands are separated by
energy gaps
When an electron jumps to the
conduction band it causes a hole
When electron falls back to its initial
valence recombination occurs
Consequently there are two
different types of currents

Hole current (electrons are the

minority carriers)
Electron current (holes are the
minority carriers)

Remember: We are interested in electrical current!

Doping

By adding impurities to the intrinsic

semiconductor we can change the
conductivity of the material this is called
doping

N-type: pentavalent (atom with 5 valence

electrons) impurity atoms are added

N-type doping
P-type doping

[Sb(Antimony) + Si]
Negative charges (electrons) are generated
N-type has lots of free electrons

P-type: trivalent (atom with 3 valence

electrons) impurity atoms are added

[B(Boron) + Si]
Positive charges (holes) are generated
P-type has lots of holes

Diodes

N region has lots of free electrons

P region has lots of holes
At equilibrium: total number positive and negative
charges is the same (@ room temp)
At the pn junction the electrons and holes with
different charges form an electric field
In order to move electrons through the electric field
(generate current) we need some force (voltage)

This potential difference is called barrier voltage

When enough voltage is applied such that electrons
are moved then we are biasing the diode
Two layers of positive and negative charges for
depletion region the region near the pn-junction is
depleted of charge carriers)

Biasing Types of a Diode

Forward bias

Connected to the
negative side of
the battery

Bias voltage VBias > barrier voltage

VBar
Reduction in + and ions smaller
depletion region
VBar Depends on material, doping,
temp, etc. (e.g., for silicon it is 0.7 V)

Reverse bias

Connected to the
positive side of
the battery

Essentially a condition that prevents

electrons to pass through the diode
Very small reverse break down current
Larger depletion region is generated

A
Anode
p region

K
Cathode
n region

Biasing Types of a Diode (Forward)

Small dynamic resistance
Conventional
Current Flow
I (Forward)

Moving
electrons

VBias

Conventional
Current Flow

K
Cathode
n region

Anode
p region
p

Biasing Types of a Diode (Reverse)

Large resistance

Very Small
Moving
Electrons:
Reverse Current)

Instant pull of
electrons

VBias
Holes are left
behind; large
depletion region

Conventional
Current Flow

K
Cathode
n region

Anode
p region
p

I-V Characteristic of a Diode

Forward bias: current passes through

Reveres bias: No current passes through

The knee is where VBias=VBar

At point B VBias < VBar Very little current
Note that at the knee the current increases rapidly but V(forward)
stays almost the same

When VBias < VBar Very little current (mu or nano Amp)
At the knee, the reverse current increases rapidly but the reverse
voltage remains almost the same
Large reverse current can result in overheating and possibly
damaging the diode (V=50V or higher typically)

Overheating results from high-speed electrons in the pregion knocking out electrons of atoms in n-region from their
orbit to the conduction band

Hence, we use limiting resistors

Electrons moving
from n to p region

Modeling a Diode (Forward Biasing)

Use rd
(internal resistance)
- Not linear!

Complete Modeling of a Diode

Note that IF is the actual direction of electron current
Forward bias: VBias = VF + IF(RLIMIT+rd); rd is typically given, VF typically is 0.7 V
Reverse bias: VBias = VR + IR * RLIMIT; IR is typically given

VF

Showing the Actual electron direction

VR

Example
Find the current through the diode and the
voltage across the resistor.
Assume rd = 10 ohm
VF
Biasing? Forward biased
Forward bias: VBias = VF + IF(RLIMIT+rd)
10 = 0.7 + IF(RLIMIT+10) IF=9.21 mA
VF=0.7+IF*rd = 792 mV
VRLIMIT = IF * RLIMIT = 9.21V

Example
Find the current through the diode and the
voltage across the resistor.
Assume IR = I uA
VR
Note: Reverse biased
Reverse bias: VBias = VR + IR * RLIMIT
VRLIMIT = IR*VRLI MIT = 1mA
VR=VBIAS-VRLIMIT=4.999 V

Forward Bias
Calculate the voltage across the resistor.

Reverse Bias
Calculate the voltage across the resistor.

Do this example on your own:

i1

U3
+

-4.182m

R1

1k

Key = Space
DC 1e-009

J1

V2

V1

30 V

30 V

Reverse
Bias

Make sure you can calculate and

find all currents- Hint: find Vn, first
U1

R2

Vn

1.5k

-0.021m

4.7k
DC 1e-009

i2

Forward
Bias

R4

i3

R3
4.7k

U2

D2

-19.459

DIODE_VIRTUAL

DC 1M

U3
+

6.114m

R1
1k

Key = Space

U1

R2

DC 1e-009

J1

1.5k

2.984m

V2

V1

30 V

30 V

Reverse
Bias

Forward
Bias

4.7k

Vn

DC 1e-009

R3
4.7k

R4

DIODE_VIRTUAL

Access this file from my web page

D2

U2

0.683
-

DC 1M