Syafiqah Lyana binti Shamsuri

4 Jujur (2009)
5 Bersih (2010)
 PROTECTION
the skull protects the brain, the vertebral
column protects the spinal cord & the
rib cage protects internal organs
such as the heart.

MINERAL STORAGE
SUPPORT bones act as a reservoir for
act as a framework to support calcium & phosphorus.
the soft body parts, to maintain
the upright position & to keep
the body stable.
MOVEMENT
bones interact with the
BLOOD CELL FORMATION skeletal muscle.
most of the blood cells are
formed in the bone marrow of
the long bones.
 PARTS FUNCTIONS
8 Cranial bones • Are fused to form immovable joints called sutures.
• Protect the brain & the sensory organs.
Eye sockets • to protect the eye ball.

Nasal bones • to support nose tissues

Ear holes • to protect inner part of ears

Maxilla (upper jaw) • to support upper teeth

Mandible (lower jaw) • to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.
 Known as the spine/ backboneExtends from the base of
the skull to the pelvic girdle

Made up of 33 vertebrae separated

from each other by discs of cartilage
(intervertebral discs) which absorb
shocks & serve as flex point.

This S-shaped column supports

A vertebra typically consists
of a main body (the centrum),
a neural arch & transverse The vertebrae differ in
processes.
& balances the body in a
vertical plane & protects the
spinal cord, supports the
skull & provides a base for the
attachment of muscles to the back
structure & function in
different regions of
the vertebral column.
 Composed of 7
vertebrae and
forming the neck

Composed 12 vertebrae
and joined to the ribcage
together forming thorax

Composed of 5 fused
vertebrae in adults.
Composed
They may occur as
of 5 vertebrae
separate bones in
young children. They
oin with the hip bone
forming the pelvis
Formed from the fusion
of 2 or 4 vertebrae. Sometimes
known as the tail bone
• Short neural spine
• Flat centrum
• Short transverse processes
• posses a pair of vertebrarterial canals
• found in the neck
• Large neural canal/vertebral foramen
Neural canal/ vertebral foramen is smaller than cervical vertebra’s
Long neural spine/ spinous processes (for attachment of back muscle)
Thick & big centrum
Short transverse processes
found in the thorax or chest region
Support the ribs
• small neural canal / vertebral foramen
• short neural spine
• thick & big centrum
• long transverse processes for muscle attachment
 SACRUM
• Vertebrae fused to each other
• Has four pairs of openings
• Triangular shape
• Found in the lower back
• Provide support in the lower back

COCCYX
• Bones fused to each other forming a triangular shape which tapers at one
end
• found right at the end of the vertebral column
• provides support as well as balance when a person is sitting
• The rib cage consists of 12
pairs of ribs with the
thoracic vertebrae at the
back portion of the body &
join to the sternum in the
front portion

• Movement of the rib cage

are brought about by
intercostal muscles
between the ribs.
• The sternum & ribs
enclose & protect the
internal organs (the
lungs & heart) & play
an important role in
breathing
The bone of the
upper arm, its
upper end
articulates with Flat, triangular-shaped
the scapula to bone, that forms the
form a ball-and- skeletal basis of the
socket joint at shoulder
the shoulder,
allowing
movement in all
direction
Longer bone of the
Flattened, slightly forearm that articulates
curved bone in the with the humerus
hand

The bones that form

the wrist. Consists of
8 small bones

The rod-shaped
ones that form
the palm.
The bones that
form the
fingers
• Consists of 6 fused bones –
support the weight of the
body from the vertebral
column.
• Also protect the internal
organs – urinary bladder &
reproductive organs.
• Made up of two halves, each
consists of 3 bones (ilium,
pubis & ischium)
• The pelvic girdle is attached
to the sacrum of the
vertebral column.
• The asetabulum / socket for
femur articulates with each
side of the pelvic girdle at
the hip joint.
• Largest bone in
the human body
• support the tight
• The head of
femur fits into the
pelvic girdle to
form a joint
• Play an important
role in
maintaining the
body’s upright • Larger than fibula
position & in
• The weight-
locomotion as it
bearing bone of
is attached to
the leg
massive muscles.

The 7 bones that

form the ankle The 5 rod-shaped
A long and thin bone – not bear any load bones that form
 more important for attachment of the foot.
muscles than for support

The bones that form the toes.

• Controlled by
central nervous
system
• Move bones
• Operate in pairs
– Extensors: extend or
straighten limbs
– Flexors: return limbs
or bend at the joints
• Tough , inelastic, and fibrous tissue that
attach muscles to bones.
• Tough, elastic
connective tissue
able to stretch
only slightly
during joint
movement.
• Attaches bone to
bone
• Found at movable
joints like elbow,
fingers, knee, and
vertebral column.
The earthworm’s hydrostatic
skeleton is formed in a fluid
filled cavity called coelom.
The body cavity is
partitioned into numerous
separate segments.
The hydrostatic skeleton
counteracts the muscles
movements. The coelom is
shrounded by two layers of
muscles, the circular and the
longitudinal muscles

During locomotion, the muscles contract in turn producing

peristaltic movements (wave-like) along the body, which
alternately shorten and lengthen the body. The chatae
secure the shortened segments in the posterior region to
the ground while the anterior segments extend owing to
contractions of the circular muscles
 Grasshopper muscles
are attached to the
exoskeleton of the
grasshopper, like ours
are attached to our
endoskeleton (bones)

•Grasshoppers have 3 pairs of legs

•3 are used for body support during
walking
•Other 3 are used for moving
forward
•Rear legs are bigger for jumping
• Grasshoppers have flexor and
extensor muscles
• Before jumping, flexor muscles
are contracted and extensor
muscles are relaxed, legs are
fully flexed
• During jump, flexor muscles
relax and extensor contracts
suddenly, causing legs to
straighten
• Its wing is aerofoil in shape
• It has pectoralis minor muscles and pectoralis major muscles
• These muscles are antagonistic muscles
• These muscles extend from sternum to humerus
• When the pectoralis minor
muscles contract, the wings are
pulled up (upstroke)
• When the pectoralis major
muscles contract, the wings are
pulled down (downstroke)
• The wings which move up and
down rhythmically generate the
forward thrust as well as provide
the lift for the flying bird
• Move by Leaping, crawling and
swimming.
• Have long hind legs with well
developed muscles to lift them off
the ground.
• Hind legs are long and are folded
into a ‘ Z shape when the frog is
at rest.
• The action off hopping takes
place when the extensor muscles
contract rapidly causing the hind
legs to straighten suddenly.
• The Force produce is used to
push the animal upwards &
forwards.
• The frog lands on its short and
small forelimbs to absorb the
shock of impact.
• It also crawls by extending &
retracting its fore and hind limbs.
 Muscle cramp

Osteoporosis
Muscular
dystrophy Arthritis
• Disease where the
bone tissue starts • Genetic disorder of
eroding, making the the muscle tissues • The inflammation of
bones brittle and caused by the lack one or more joints
prone to factures of nourishment to characterised by
the affected swelling, warmth,
• common in the elderly
muscles redness of the
and women overlying area, pain
menopause • Causes the and restriction of
• Can be prevented by muscles in the movement
taking a diet rich in body to become
very weak • Osteoarthritis is most
calcium, phosphorus & common in older
vitamin D, regular- • More common in people where the top
weight bearing male layer of cartilage
exercise, and avoiding breaks down and
smoking and excessive • Usually seen in
children between wears away
alcohol
two to ten years
 A balanced diet Good Posture

Very important to Helps to tasks

have a diet rich help to ensure
in proteins and that the body is
calcium. Fats and always well-
oils should be supported
avoided

Proper attire for

Exercise
daily activities

The right amount So that the flow

and the right of movement is
kind of exercise not hindered
are very
important for a
healthy
musculoskeletal
system
 • To allow growth towards
sunlight in order for
photosynthesis to take place
• To allow leaves be placed in a
proper position for maximum
absorption of light
• To allow the flowers be
placed in a position that they
can attract insects for
Aquatic Terrestrial pollination
Plants Plants
• To allow fruits be placed in
strategic places for effective
dispersals of seeds

Woody
Climbers
Plants

Herbaceous
Plants
 Consists of spongy tissue
filled with air sacs which are
known as aerenchyma
tissues. These tissues help
the leaves and stems of the
aquatic plants to float on the
surface of the water
The natural buoyancy of the
water helps the aquatic
plants to float
Possesses features to
help them stay afloat
on water

Other aquatic plants such as

Hydrilla sp. and Elodea sp. posses
air sacs which found on the plant to
stay upright in water
 Schlerenchyma cells are dead
cells and have very thick walls.
These cells are in charge of
providing mechanical support to
the plant
Xylem vessels are long
Consists of specialised tissues
cylindrical structures
such as schlerencyhma tissues,
placed end to end that
xylem vessels and tracheids which
allow movement of water
have cellulose walls and deposits
from the roots to the
of lignin
leaves of plants. They
have thick walls made of
lignin which provide
support to plants

Tracheids are dead cells

and have thick walls with
very small diameter. They
give support to plants
 Depend on the Parenchyma tissues store starch,
turgidity of the cells sugars and water. These cells
and other supportive maintain the turgidity of the plants
tissues for support to give support to the plant

Collenchyma tissues support young and herbaceous plants.

These cells have slightly thickened walls of cellulose which
give support to the leaf or flower stalk and young stems
 Pepper plants
twine their roots
Gloriosa sp. have the ends of around the
the leaves modified into tendrils supporting
for climbing structure for
climbing

Tendrils of morning glory twine

around the supporting structure

Have modified structures for

climbing up a support to obtain
sunlight