PCM

(Pulse code
modulation)

-Teacher:
Masters Nguyn
Thanh c
-Group member:
Trn Vn Sng
Bi Cng Tun
Nguyn Vn Tin
Nguyn Tt Thng
Trn V Thuyt
Nguyn Cng
Nguyn Vn Tn

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11041971
11265281

Topics to be Covered
-Introdution
-Analog to digital: PCM (pulse code modulation)

Getting sample
Quantization
Encoding

-Line coding
-PCM systems and digital time division multiplexing (TDM)
-Circuit switch

Digital and Analog Signals

Some

signals (like speech and video) are inherently

analog; some (like computer data) are inherently
digital.
However both analog and digital signals can be
represented and transmitted digitally.
Advantages of digital:

Reduced sensitivity to line noise, temp. drift, etc.

Low cost for switching and transmission.
Lower maintenance costs than analog.
Uniformity in carrying voice, data, video, fax, etc. (a
bit is a bit)
Better encryption.

Power Spectral Density

Power

spectrum (power spectral density)

describes how the average power is
distributed with respect to frequency.

Deterministic
Random

signals Fourier transform

signals Power spectral density

A statistical representation for all

random signals in a particular application

Bandwidth

For random signals, bandwidth is determined from

the power spectral density.

Bandwidth is determined only from the +ve

frequencies.

There are different bandwidth definitions

Absolute bandwidth
95% bandwidth
Null-to-null bandwidth

Analog Signals
Analog

(continuous-time, continuous-amplitude)
signals (like speech) have a certain bandwidth.
Their power spectrum (power spectral density)
describes how their average power is distributed
with respect to frequency.

Power
spectral
density
(watts/Hz)

High-fidelity speech

Telephone speech
(limited by filtering)

Bandwidth

7....

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Key

points

PCM signal is developed by three steps:

sampling, quantizing and encoding.
Quantizing noise is reduced by using
variable sized steps. It is independent of line
length.
s(t)

s(n)

011010001...

Filter

Sample at t=n

Quantize

Encode

Getting Sample

 Signal

Sampling: The process variable signal

continuous signal into discrete samples over time.
facility-based sampling theorem kachenhihcop
Sampling Conditions: Signal (t) with unlimited
bandwidth fmax
Sample rate: fs 2fmax.
Nyquist frequency fs / 2, also known as the cutoff
frequency
Approximately Nyquist [- fs / 2, fs / 2]

Sampling ideal

where:

Ts : sampling period [sec]

fs = 1 / Ts : the sampling frequency
[Hz] or sampling rate [samples / sec]
Logical choice is the value of fs
important issues:
fs must be large enough to represent
the full nature of the signal.
fs too big to higher hardware
requirements, memory usage, etc. ...

Description of the
sampling process
Described

in the time domain

Stakeer

Goverent

Described in the frequency

domain

Description of the sampling

process
The

relationship between input - output of the sample:

In the time domain:

In

the frequency domain:

Comment:
The

process of creating a broad-spectrum

sampling infinite but cyclic fs cycle.
That is, the spectrum of xs (t) is the
spectrum of x (t) and repeated at a
frequency fs, 2 fs, etc ...

Nyquist Sampling Theorem

Using

a low-pass filter
to restore the signal.
To restore true then:
where: fs : Nyquist rate
fs / 2 Nyquist frequency
[- fs

/ 2; fs / 2]: about Nyquist.

 As

such, in order from the sample can be properly

restored original signal, when taken
sample to select the sampling rate is greater than or at
least equal to two times the frequency components
highest number of analog signals.
Nyquist Theorem define the lower limit of fs .

 Nyquist

Sampling Theorem :
The upper limit of fs :
Suppose p: time to process each data sample (depending
on hardware).
fp = 1 / Tp : speed of processing each sample.
For the sample values do not overlap, then
In

summary, the range of fs :

Quantization:
The process of approximation of discrete sample values
transforming a set of discrete sample values into a very large
number value less.
Position of blocks quantization in the system:
sampling

Quantization

Double style quantization:

Style uniform.
Style nouniform.

encoding

 Quantization:

Property of the reflected quantized input relations - output.

Example: uniform quantizer 3 bit.

Bipolar format

Monopole format

Quantization

Quantization
Uniform

Nonuniform
Output signal

Output signal

Input signal

Input signal

The more steps (levels) the less quantization noise. Nonuniform quantization
(e.g. -law) allows a larger dynamic range (important for speech).

 Quantization
With the quantization have full-scale range R, performances
B bit 2b level quantization.. With the quantization have a

global distance
Width quantization:

=
2

Quantization error :
e(t ) = xsQ (t ) xs (t )

or:

e = xsQ xs

Quantization error and quantization noise random variable with evenly

distributed, error utility profile.
=

12

 Quantization
The ratio SNR of the quantized:

(law 6 dB on bit)
SN R = 6 B [dB ]
Remarks :
The ADC increase by 1 bit, the ratio SNR 6 dB
increase.

The higher the number of bits as small quantum noise.

The ratio SNR not dependent on the signal amplitude.

Example: Telephone system: = 8 ; performances 8

bit/sample; R=10.
Solution: Utility quantum error :
=

12

2 = 10 = 11.3 ()
12
28 12

Rate bit
. = 8( ) 8 ( sec) = 64

Encryption
Encryption process is
performed each
discrete value xq (n)
by a sequence
obinary bits b.

1. Another method is standardized by

CCITT encoding rules used in
paragraph 13 telecommunication
networks.
Law 13 coding segments (13-segment
coding law) the conversion of the
signal amplitude of the signal x as
follows:

LINE CODE
Line coding is changed signal so that it is consistent with
the waveform characteristics revenue channels and
devices.

Classification
Base band coding and modulation coding
Base band coding : transform the source data into a square
waveform voltage.
Modulation coding : source signal is transmitted over a long
distance modulated by carrier.
Diagram of base band:

LINE CODE

UNIPOLAR

NRZ

NRZ-L

RZ

NRZ-I

POLAR

BIPHASE

MANCHESTER

BIPOLAR

AMI

B8ZS

HDB3

DIFFERENTIAL
MANCHESTER

Unipolar coding
A voltage level perform for bits 0 and a voltage level
perform for bit 1. typically ,Bit 1is performed at high
voltage.

Simple, low cost. DC high average

levels, ability to nag at the very least bit
0 or 1 chain stretching.

Polar coding : NRZ (NRZ- L

and NRZ- I), RZ , BIPHASE
NRZ-L

DC component decreased compared with unipolar

codes, hard sync when multiple bit 0 or 1 in a row.

NRZ-I

Synchronization problem was solved when having

consecutive sequence bit 1.

RZ

Synchronization problem has been resolved. But broadband and

there are three voltage levels. This is considered the most
effective method.

Biphase coding

Existence of positive and negative voltage in 1 bit. 0 DC components

by better synchronization method.
Manchester

Differential Manchester

Bipolar coding : AMI, B8ZS and HDB3.

AMI
Bit 0 = 0 V.
Bit 1: perform alternating voltage
positive or negative.

Eliminate the DC component, bit synchronization

sequence 1, not 0 synchronous bit stream.

B8ZS

If encryption is 0 consecutive group of

8 bits is encoded:
+ 00000000 -> + 000+-0-+
-00000000 -> - 000 - + 0 + -

HDB3

If you do not have to group 4 consecutive bits are coded 0 v 0. if bit 0

of 4 in a row it will calculate the total number of pulses.
Odd numbers : + 0000 -> +000+
even numbers: + 0000 -> + - 00-0000->-+00+

LINE CODE

Unipolar

Averag
e DC
large

The ability to sync

bandwi
dth

Less when transmitted bit

sequence of 0 or 1

LOW

NRZ-I

LOW

Less when transmitted bit

sequence of 0

LOW

RZ

LOW

GOOD

HIGH

MANCHESTER

GOOD

HIGH

AMI

Less when transmitted bit

sequence of 0

LOW

B8ZS

GOOD

LOW

HDB3

GOOD

LOW

Summary of Line Codes

44

MODULATION CODING

Consists of analog modulation and digital

modulation:
Analog modulation

AM amplitude carrier signal changes

according to the news, do not change
the frequency and phase

FM

FM

PM

Digital modulation
ASK amplitude shift key modulation: the course of the bits 1 and 0
by changing the amplitude of the carrier signal (frequency and
phase do not change). ASK usually sensitive to noise amplitude.

FSK frequency shift key modulation: a method that changes the

carrier frequency to represent the bit 1 and 0 (amplitude and
phase angle do not change).

- PSK phase shift key modulation: carrier phase change to

represent the bit 1 and 0 (amplitude and frequency did not
change)

PCM systems and digital time division multiplexing

(TDM)

In digital multiplexing several messages are transmitted via

same physical channel. For multiplexing 64 kbit/s channels in
digital exchanges following three methods are popular:
PDH (plesio-synchronous digital hierarchy) (the dominant
method today) (50-60, G.702)
SONET (synchronous optical network) (85)
SDH (synchronous digital hierarchy) (CCITT 88)

51

PDH
Digital

transmission systems (T-carrier, E carrier)

combine lower order multiplexing stream to get higher
bit rate
Different streams have small differences in clock
signals.
Solve by adding justification bit
PDH = Plesiochronous Digital Hierachy

almost synchronous

Digital carrier standard

T-carrier

North America,

Japan

E-carrier
Europe,

Mexico, South America

European PCM frame

125 s

32 time slots x 8 bits x 8000 Hz = 2048 kbit/s

frame synchronization slot
signaling or traffic
traffic

PDH E-1 frame

T1 carrier system
PCM

PCM

PCM

MUX
DS-1 frame

DEMUX
PCM

PCM

PCM

DS-1 frame
each channel also refers as DS0
125 s

channel
#1

channel
#2

.......

channel
#24

8 bit
193 bits

data rate = (24x8 +1 bit)/125 s = 1.544 Mbps

frame
bit

E1-frame
125 ms = 32 time slots = 2.048 Mbps

0 1 2
frame synchronization

16
signaling channel

30 voice channel+2 control

channel

31

E - carrier
Thirty 64 kbps channels
are multiplexed to create
one 2.048 Mbps E1
channel

E1

E1

E2

Four E2 channels are

multiplexed into a single
34.368 Mbps E3 channel

E3

E2

E3

E4

Four E4 channels are

multiplexed into a single
565.148 Mbps E5
channel

E1

E1

E2

E2

E3

E4

E3

E4

E5

Four E1 channels are

multiplexed into a single 8.448
Mbps E2 channel

E4

Four E3 channels
are multiplexed
into a single
139.264 Mbps E4
channel

Digital carrier comparison

Europe

x31

E1
2.048

x4

E2
8.448

x4

x 4 E4
x 4 E5
E3
34.368
139.264
565.148

x24

T1
1.544

x4

T2
6.312

x7

x 6 T4
T3
44.736
274.176

J1
1.544

x4

J2
6.312

x5

64
x24

x 3 J4
J3
32.064
97.728

USA
x4

J5
397.200

Japan

Circuit Switch
Circuit Switch PCM:
A type of transplant switching activity on
the basis of time-multiplexing and pulse
code modulation.
A switched network consists centers
(nodes) switches, the terminal and
transmission system.
lines from the PBX

lines from the PBX

circuit
swcenteritching
communication
lines
lines to subscribers

communication
lines
lines to subscribers

Circuit Switch PCM

Picking swap
between time slot
executed by two
methods and can split
special or distribution
set like following:
- Circuit Switch of time.
- Circuit Switch of
space

Circuit Switch of time(T)

Circuit Switch of time about the basic that
perform change the information between the
time slot in the different same line PCM

Circuit Switch of time (T)

Methodology:
Theoretically can
be done
by
two methods:
general
principle :On
the signal line,
hysteresis units
have a time
same as 1 of
time slot

The method uses the

hysteresis units

Circuit Switch of time (T)

caching methods :
Based on the voice samples recorded in the
memory buffer and read out at the BM desired time.
The address of the memory cells in the BM to write or
read is provided by the memory controller CM
Using

The method uses caching

Circuit Switch of time (T)

Sequential
control:
Sequential
controller
controls the read
(or write) on the
memory cells of
the memory BM
a row.
Use the time slot
counter counts
cycles R,
sequential
counter will add
value to a slot
after a period of
time.

Sequential
control:

Circuit Switch of time (T)

Random

controls :
Controls the read
(or write) the
memory cells of
BM on
demand.
Use memory
controller CM,
CM memory
cells containing
the address
read (or write)
of memory BM

Random controls
:

Circuit Switch of time (T)

Improved

switching T:
Multiplexer with bits in parallel:
Raising the possibility of switching the mode Tstorey parallel transmission of 1 channel signal
through the floor of T

Circuit Switch of space(S)

- Principle
work principle of Circuit Switch of space based
database Circuit Switch of space be used
diagonal . Circuit Switch of space execution failed
to swap the information same the time slot but out
two line PCM different

Circuit Switch of
space(S)

Circuit Switch of space (S)

Circuit Switch of space(S)

S switching matrix 4 * 4

Circuit Switch of space(S)

- Switching control of S:

The determination of the switching

point can be done in two ways :
- Under the control inputs: Define
outputs connect to the corresponding
input.
- Under the control output: Determine
what input will connect with
corresponding output

Circuit Switch of space(S)

The number of binary bits required for input
n log2n. Total capacity of the memory CM
is: CCM = R.log2n (with R is the number of
time slots in one frame).
If S has m switching output, the memory of it
is a total CM: S CCM = mRlog2n
Control according
output

Circuit Switch of space(S)

According to the input control

The type of multiplexing

Circuit

Switch TS
Circuit Switch STS
Circuit Switch TST

Circuit Switch TS

Circuit Switch STS

Circuit Switch TST