INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY
BY:
TENGKU AMRAN TENGKU MOHD
Fundamental of Petroleum
Geology
Outline
Geological Time
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be
able to:
Describe the nature of oil and gas
Discuss the main difference between igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks as well
as the circular process.
Overview
Gas
Oil
Water
Overview
What is geology???
Geology is of major importance to the petroleum
industry for the following reasons:
- It is necessary to drill through the rock structure of the
earth in order to gain access to the hydrocarbon
reservoir.
Overview
The physical characteristics of a reservoir, how
petroleum originated and in what type of rock, what types
of fluids exist in the reservoir, how hydrocarbons become
trapped, and basic well log analysis are some of the
concepts vital to the production and recovery efforts of
any exploration or energy service company.
Hydrocarbon is generated in the source
rock.
1. Crude Oil
Paraffins or alkane molecule saturated chain HC
(single bonds)
CnH2n+2
Naphthene or cycloparaffin molecule cyclic HC
compounds
CnH2n
1. Crude Oil
Aromatic or benzene molecule closed ring with some
unsaturated (double) bonds
CnH2n-6
2. Natural Gas
Mixture of HC (mainly HC gases)
Methane (CH4)
Ethane (C2H6)
Propane (C3H8)
Butane (C4H10)
2. Natural Gas
3. Gas Hydrates
1. Igneous Rock
Igneous rock is rock formed from cooling magma, or
molten rock (from the mantle or asthenosphere of
the earth).
Igneous rock at the earths surface usually implies
volcanic activity where magma has been extruded to
the surface in the form of lava.
Upon exposure to the atmosphere, cooling and
solidifying occurs, resulting in the formation of
extrusive igneous rock (volcanic).
The greatest presence of igneous rock in the crust of
the earth, however, is intrusive or plutonic igneous
rock.
Igneous rocks rarely form drilling targets for
petroleum (except fractured granites and lavas)
Extrusive
Intrusive
1. Igneous Rock
1. Igneous Rock
Igneous rock beneath the surface rock of the
earths crust is referred to as basement rock.
This basement rock is usually granite.
When drillers drill into basement rock, they will
normally cease drilling.
1. Igneous Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
Formation
Sedimentary rocks are formed from overburden
pressure as particles of sediment are deposited out of
air, ice, or water flows carrying the particles in
suspension. As sediment deposition builds up, the
overburden (or 'lithostatic') pressure squeezes the
sediment into layered solids in a process known as
lithification ('rock formation') and the original connate
fluids are expelled.
(The term diagenesis is used to describe all the
chemical, physical, and biological changes, including
cementation, undergone by a sediment after its initial
deposition and during and after its lithification,
exclusive of surface weathering.)
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Formation
Sedimentary rocks contain important
information about the history of the Earth.
They contain fossils (the preserved
remains of ancient plants and animals).
Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils
because, unlike most igneous and
metamorphic rocks, they form at
temperatures and pressures that do not
destroy fossil remnants.
The composition of sediments provides
us with clues as to the original rock.
Differences between successive layers
indicate changes to the environment
which have occurred over time.
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Sedimentary Processes
1
2) & 3)
Sediments are
transported and
deposited
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Weathering -
Transportation -
mechanical or
chemical break down
of rock
movement of sediment
by gravity, wind, water
(geologic agents)
Sedimentary
rocks
Crystallization - new
minerals grow, or existing
crystals grow larger as time
passes - helps hold rock
together.
Deposition
occurs when
geologic agent can
no longer transport
material
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2. Sedimentary Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
The two main groups of sedimentary rocks are classified
on the basis of their origin:
1) Clastic Sedimentary Rocks - formed as a result of
the weathering or fragmentation of pre-existing rocks
and minerals and classified on the basis of their
textures, primarily the sizes of the grains.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Coarse-grained
conglomerates
Medium-grained
sandstones
Fine-grained
Siltstones,mudstones
& shales
Conglomerate
Breccia
Sandstone
Shale
All these rocks have clastic textures the rocks are composed of
particles (fragments) that are cemented together
2. Sedimentary Rock
The two main groups of sedimentary rocks are classified
on the basis of their origin:
2) Chemical or Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks formed as a result of chemical processes.
Primary carbonate deposition results from the
precipitation and deposits formed by plants and
animals that utilize carbonates in their life processes.
Calcite -The most abundant mineral chemically or
biochemically precipitated in the oceans the main
constituent of limestone.
Travertine
Coquina
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3) Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rock is rock formed from previously existing
rocks by extremes of pressure, temperature, time, and
chemical action.
When conditions leading to lithification are carried to the
extreme, metamorphism occurs. As an example, sand
originally deposited as desert sand may undergo
lithification to form sandstone in geologic time.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the heating - often
accompanied by deformation- of pre-existing rocks
(igneous or sedimentary) at depth within the earths crust
(e.g. schist, marble, gneiss).
Ultimately metamorphic rocks will be melted and re-cycled
as igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks are rarely drilling
targets for hydrocarbons.
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Quartzite
metamorphosed
sandstone
Marble
Metamorphosed
limestone
3) Metamorphic Rocks
3) Metamorphic Rocks
3) Metamorphic Rocks
It is not expected that hydrocarbon will be found in
metamorphic rock.
Graphical Representation of
Microscopic View of Sample of Gneiss
Formation of Rocks
Rock cycle
Summary
Igneous rocks solidify from magma (or molten rock)
Sedimentary rocks form from materials that are eroded
from other rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have changed due to
being heated and/or compressed.
Minerals
Rocks are composed of minerals (Figure) constructed
from the main elements present within the Earths crust .
The difference between a rock and a mineral is:
A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals (e.g.
granite, marble or sandstone) or a body of
undifferentiated mineral matter (e.g. obsidian) or organic
matter (e.g. coal)
Minerals
Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or
compound having an orderly internal structure and
characteristic chemical composition, crystal form and
physical properties.
The number of different minerals is vast and only those
most commonly occurring in the sedimentary rocks,
considered most relevant to the petroleum engineer, are
considered at this time.
Rocks are
aggregates of
minerals
Minerals
are the
basic
building
blocks
of the
solid
earth
Minerals
Overview
Geologic time
scale
Divisions of
geologic time are:
Eons
Eras
Periods
Epochs
The time scale was
developed using
relative dating
techniques on a
world-wide basis
PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience
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Formation
of planet (4600)
PAB 1023 Petroleum
Geoscience
56
Another look
at geologic
time
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Strata are
deposited
horizontally,
with oldest
strata beneath
younger strata
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Relative dating
3) Cross cutting
Igneous
intrusions,
such as
dikes, sills
and
plutons,
and faults,
are
younger
than the
features
they cut
across
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Relative dating
4) Inclusions
Inclusions are older than the
rocks that contain them.
Xenoliths in intrusive rock are
older than the intrusive rock
Igneous clasts in conglomerate
are older than the conglomerate
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Look at stratigraphy
(rock sequence) of
the Grand Canyon
Permian: 251-300
million years ago
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Beta
emission
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Stratigraphic principles
Uniformitarianism
More or less, this is the idea that processes
which are happening today happened similarly
in the past. So if we observe something going on
today, we might expect it to have been similar
100 million years ago.
The present is the key to the past.
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Superposition principles
Basically, in any undisturbed stratigraphic column,
the oldest layer of rock is located at the bottom. This
is pretty obvious - you can't put layer B on top of
layer A if layer A isn't there yet, and it's awfully hard
to slip layer A into a stratigraphic column without
disturbing the column.
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Crosscutting principles
If geologic unit A cuts through geologic unit B, then A is
younger than B. For example, if a fault breaks a rock
layer, the fault must be younger than the rock layer.
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1
4
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Sandstone Reservoir
Sandstone reservoir
Sandstone Reservoir
Sandstone reservoirs are generally created by:
Accumulation of large amounts of clastic
sediments which is characteristic of depositional
environments such as river channels, deltas,
beaches, lakes and submarine fans.
Carbonate Reservoir
Sedimentary rock composed
primarily of calcium carbonate
(limestone) or calcium magnesium
carbonate (dolomite).
Sometimes makes up petroleum
reservoir.
Carbonate reservoirs are created
in marine sedimentary
environments with little or no
clastic material input.
Carbonate reservoir
Carbonate Reservoir
Porosity types of carbonate reservoirs include vuggy
(pores larger than grains), intergranular (between
grains), intragranular or cellular (within grains), and
fracture.
Diagenetic changes such as dolomitization, fracturing,
dissolution, and recrystalization (rare) are extremely
important because they have the ability to create very
effective secondary porosity.
Cementation, another type of diagenesis, generally
reduces porosity and permeability.
Carbonate Reservoir
Vuggy porosity
Form of secondary porosity resulting from the dissolution
of the more soluble portions of rock or solution
enlargement of pores or fractures.
Vuggy porosity in
carbonates
Carbonate Reservoir
Vuggy porosity
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