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Transmission Lines

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Transmission-Line Basics
Transmission lines in communication carry

telephone signals, computer data in LANs, TV

signals in cable TV systems, and signals from a
transmitter to an antenna or from an antenna to a
receiver.
Their electrical characteristics are critical and
must be matched to the equipment for successful
communication to take place.
Transmission lines are also circuits.

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Transmission-Line Basics

The two primary requirements of a transmission

line are:
1. The line should introduce minimum attenuation

to the signal.
2. The line should not radiate any of the signal as
radio energy.

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Categories
Guided Transmission Media form of conductor
that provides conduit in which electromagnetic
signals are contained.
2. Unguided Transmission Media signal are
emitted then radiated through air or vacuum.
1.

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Transverse Electromagnetic
Waves

2 Kinds of Waves
Longitudinal the displacement is in the
direction of propagation.
2. Transverse the direction of the displacement
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
1.

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Transverse Electromagnetic
Waves

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Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves

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Classification of Transmission Lines

Balanced Transmission Lines with two wire
lines, both conductors carry current, one carries
the signal, and the other conductor is the return
path. Also termed as differential signal
transmission.
2. Unbalanced Transmission Lines one wire is at
ground potential, whereas the other wire is at
signal potential. Also called single ended
transmission.
3. Baluns a circuit device used to connect a
balanced transmission line to an unbalanced
load.
1.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Types of Transmission Lines
Parallel-wire line is made of two parallel

conductors separated by a space of inch to

several inches.
A variation of parallel line is the 300- twin-lead.
Spacing between the wires is maintained by a
continuous plastic insulator.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Types of Transmission Lines
The most widely used type of transmission line is

the coaxial cable. It consists of a solid center

conductor surrounded by a dielectric material,
usually a plastic insulator such as Teflon.
A second conducting shield made of fine wires covers the

insulator, and an outer plastic sheath insulates the braid.

Coaxial cable comes in sizes from inch to several

inches in diameter.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Types of Transmission Lines
Twisted-pair cable uses two insulated solid copper

wires covered with insulation and loosely twisted

together.
Two types of twisted-pair cable are
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable

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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-1: Common types of transmission lines. (a) Open-wire line. (b) Open-wire
line called twin lead. (c) Coaxial cable (d) Twisted-pair cable.
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Transmission-Line Basics
Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
Transmission lines can be balanced or

unbalanced.
A balanced line is one in which neither wire is
connected to ground.
The signal on each wire is referenced to ground.
In an unbalanced line, one conductor is connected
to ground.
Open-wire line has a balanced configuration.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
Balanced-line wires offer significant protection from

noise pickup and cross talk.

Coaxial cables are unbalanced lines.
Coaxial cable and shielded twisted-pair provide
significant but not complete protection from noise or
cross talk.
Unshielded lines may pick up signals and cross talk
and can even radiate energy, resulting in an
undesirable loss of signal.
A device called a balun is used to convert from
balanced to unbalanced lines and vice versa.

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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-2: (a) Balanced line. (b) Unbalanced line.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Wavelength of Cables
The electrical length of conductors is typically short

compared to 1 wavelength of the frequency they

carry.
A pair of current-carrying conductors is not
considered to be a transmission line unless it is at
least 0.1 long at the signal frequency.
The distance represented by a wavelength in a
given cable depends on the type of cable.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Connectors
Most transmission lines terminate in some kind of

connector, a device that connects the cable to a

piece of equipment or to another cable.
Connectors are a common failure point in many
applications.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Connectors: Coaxial Cable Connectors
Coaxial cables are designed not only to provide a

convenient way to attach and disconnect equipment

and cables but also to maintain the physical
integrity and electrical properties of the cable.
The most common types are the PL-259 or UHF,
BNC, F, SMA, and N-type connectors.
The PL-259, also referred to as a UHF connector,
can be used up to low UHF frequencies (less than
500 MHz.)

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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-3: UHF connectors. (a) PL-259 male connector. (b) Internal construction and
connections for the PL-259. (c) SO-239 female chassis connector.
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Transmission-Line Basics
Connectors: Coaxial Cable Connectors
BNC connectors are widely used on 0.25 inch

coaxial cables for attaching test equipment.

In BNC connectors the center conductor of the
cable is soldered or crimped to a male pin and the
shield braid is attached the body of the connector.
The least expensive coaxial connector is the F-type,
which is used for TV sets, VCRs, DVD players, and
cable TV.
The RCA phonograph connector is used primarily in
audio equipment.
The best performing coaxial connector is the Ntype, which is used mainly on large coaxial cable at
higher frequencies.
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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-4: BNC connectors. (a) Male. (b) Female. (c) Barrel connector. (d) T
connector.
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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-6: The F connector used on TV sets, VCRs, and cable TV boxes.
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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-7: RCA phonograph connectors are sometimes used for RF connectors up
to VHF.
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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-8: N-type coaxial connector.

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Characteristic Impedance
Defined as the impedance seen looking into a

infinitely long line or the impedance seen looking into

a finite length of line that is terminated in a purely
resistive load with a resistance equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line.
When the length of transmission line is longer than several

wavelengths at the signal frequency, the two parallel

conductors of the transmission line appear as a complex
impedance.
An RF generator connected to a considerable length of
transmission line sees an impedance that is a function of the
inductance, resistance, and capacitance in the circuitthe
characteristic or surge impedance (Z0).

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Characteristic Impedance

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Material

Velocity Factor

Relative Dielectric Constant

Vacuum

1.0000

1.0000

Air

0.9997

1.0006

Teflon foam

0.8200

1.4872

Teflon

0.6901

2.1000

Polyethylene

0.6637

2.2700

Paper, paraffined

0.6325

2.5000

Polysterene

0.6325

2.5000

Polyvinyl chloride

0.5505

3.3000

Rubber

0.5774

3.0000

Mica

0.4472

5.0000

Glass

0.3651

7.5000

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Sample Problem

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Velocity Factor
The speed of the signal in the transmission line is

slower than the speed of a signal in free space.

Sometimes called velocity constant
The velocity of propagation of a signal in a cable is
less than the velocity of propagation of light in free
space by a fraction called the velocity factor (VF).

VF = Vp/Vc

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Velocity Factor and Dielectric

Constant

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Sample Problem
For a given length of RG 8A/U coaxial cable with

a distributed capacitance of of 96.6 pF/m, a

distributed inductance of 241.56 nH/m, and a
relative dielectric constant of 2.3, determine the
velocity of propagation and the velocity factor.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Time Delay
Because the velocity of propagation of a

transmission line is less than the velocity of

propagation in free space, any line will slow down or
delay any signal applied to it.
A signal applied at one end of a line appears some
time later at the other end of the line.
This is called the time delay or transit time.
A transmission line used specifically for the purpose
of achieving delay is called a delay line.

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Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-11: The effect of the time delay of a transmission line on signals. (a) Sine
wave delay causes a lagging phase shift. (b) Pulse delay.
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Transmission-Line Basics
Transmission-Line Specifications
Many coaxial cables are designated by an

alphanumeric code beginning with the letters RG or

a manufacturers part number.
Primary specifications are characteristic impedance
and attenuation.
Other important specifications are maximum
breakdown voltage rating, capacitance per foot,
velocity factor, and outside diameter in inches.
The attenuation is the amount of power lost per 100
ft of cable expressed in decibels at 100 MHz.

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Transmission-Line Basics
Transmission-Line Specifications
Attenuation is directly proportional to cable length

and increases with frequency.

A transmission line is a low-pass filter whose cutoff
frequency depends on distributed inductance and
capacitance along the line and on length.
It is important to use larger, low-loss cables for
longer runs despite cost and handling
inconvenience.
A gain antenna can be used to offset cable loss.

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Standing Waves
When a signal is applied to a transmission line, it

appears at the other end of the line some time

later because of the propagation delay.
If the load on the line is an antenna, the signal is
converted into electromagnetic energy and
radiated into space.
If the load at the end of the line is an open or a
short circuit or has an impedance other than the
characteristic impedance of the line, the signal is
not fully absorbed by the load.

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Standing Waves
When a line is not terminated properly, some of

the energy is reflected and moves back up the

line, toward the generator.
This reflected voltage adds to the forward or
incident generator voltage and forms a composite
voltage that is distributed along the line.
The pattern of voltage and its related current
constitute what is called a standing wave.
Standing waves are not desirable.

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Standing Waves

Figure 13-15: How a pulse propagates along a transmission line.

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Standing Waves
Matched Lines
A matched transmission line is one terminated in

a load that has a resistive impedance equal to the

characteristic impedance of the line.
Alternating voltage (or current) at any point on a
matched line is a constant value. A correctly
terminated transmission line is said to be flat.
The power sent down the line toward the load is
called forward or incident power.
Power not absorbed by the load is reflected power.

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Standing Waves

Figure 13-16: A transmission line must be terminated in its characteristic impedance for
proper operation.
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Standing Waves
Calculating the Standing Wave Ratio
The magnitude of the standing waves on a transmission

line is determined by the ratio of the maximum current to

the minimum current, or the ratio of the maximum voltage
to the minimum voltage, along the line.
These ratios are referred to as the standing wave ratio
(SWR).

SWR =

Imax
Imin

Vmax
Vmin
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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements
The standing wave conditions resulting from

open- and short-circuited loads must usually be

avoided when working with transmission lines.
With quarter- and half-wavelength transmissions,

these open- and short-circuited loads can be

used as resonant or reactive circuits.

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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements
Resonant Circuits and Reactive Components
Shorted and open quarter wavelengths act like LC

tuned or resonant circuits at the reference

frequency.
With a shorted line, if the line length is less than
one-quarter wavelength at the operating frequency,
the shorted line looks like an inductor to the
generator.
If the shorted line is between one-quarter and onehalf wavelength, it looks like a capacitor to the
generator.
These conditions repeat with multiple one-quarter or
one-half wavelengths of shorted line.
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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements
Resonant Circuits and Reactive Components
With an open line, a one-quarter wavelength line

looks like a series resonant circuit to the generator,

and a one-half wavelength line looks like a parallel
resonant circuit, just the opposite of a shorted line.
If the line is less than one-quarter wavelength, the
generator sees a capacitance.
If the line is between one-quarter and one-half
wavelength, the generator sees an inductance.
These characteristics repeat for lines that are some
multiple of one-quarter or one-half wavelengths.

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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements

Figure 13-25: Summary of impedance and reactance variations of shorted and open
lines for lengths up to one wavelength.
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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements
Stripline and Microstrip
Special transmission lines constructed with copper

patterns on a printed circuit board (PCB), called

microstrip or stripline, can be used as tuned
circuits, filters, phase shifters, reactive components,
and impedance-matching circuits at high
frequencies.

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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements
Stripline and Microstrip
Microstrip is a flat conductor separated by an

insulating dielectric from a large conducting ground

plane.
The microstrip is usually a quarter or half
wavelength long.
The ground plane is the circuit common and is
equivalent to an unbalanced line.
The characteristic impedance of microstrip is
dependent on its physical characteristics.

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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements

Figure 13-26: Microstrip. (a) Unbalanced. (b) Balanced.

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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements
Stripline and Microstrip
Stripline is a flat conductor sandwiched between

two ground planes.

It is more difficult to make than microstrip; however,
it does not radiate as microstrip does.
The length is one-quarter or one-half wavelength at
the desired operating frequency.
Shorted lines are more commonly used than open
lines.

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Transmission Lines
as Circuit Elements

Figure 13-28: Stripline.

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The Smith Chart

The mathematics required to design and analyze

transmission lines is complex, whether the line is

a physical cable connecting a transceiver to an
antenna or is being used as a filter or impedancematching network.
This is because the impedances involved are
complex ones, involving both resistive and
reactive elements.
The impedances are in the familiar rectangular
form, R + jX.

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The Smith Chart

The Smith Chart is a sophisticated graph that

permits visual solutions to transmission line

calculations.
Despite the availability of the computing options
today, this format provides a more or less
standardized way of viewing and solving
transmission-line and related problems.

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The Smith Chart

The horizontal axis is the pure resistance or zero-

reactance line.
The point at the far left end of the line represents
zero resistance, and the point at the far right
represents infinite resistance. The resistance
circles are centered on and pass through this
pure resistance line.
The circles are all tangent to one another at the
infinite resistance point, and the centers of all the
circles fall on the resistance line.

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The Smith Chart

Any point on the outer circle represents a

resistance of 0 .
The R = 1 circle passes through the exact center
of the resistance line and is known as the prime
center.
Values of pure resistance and the characteristic
impedance of transmission line are plotted on this
line.
The linear scales printed at the bottom of Smith
charts are used to find the SWR, dB loss, and
reflection coefficient.
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The Smith Chart

Figure 13-30: The Smith chart.

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