Chapter 3: The Cellular

Level of Organization
What is cell theory?
The Cell - Performs all life functions
-

2 Types of Cells
Sex Cells
Sex cells (germ cells):
reproductive cells
male sperm
female oocytes (eggs)

Somatic Cells
Somatic cells (soma
= body):
all body cells except
sex cells

Organelles

Organelle Functions

Organelle Functions

What are the structures and

functions of the cell membrane?

Components of the Cell Membrane

Contains lipids, carbohydrates, and functional proteins

Phospholipid Bilayer
Double layer of phospholipid molecules:
hydrophilic headstoward watery environment,
both sides
hydrophobic fatty-acid tailsinside membrane
barrier to ions and water soluble compounds

Membrane Proteins

Integral proteins:
within the membrane

Peripheral proteins:
inner or outer surface of the membrane

6 Functions of Membrane Proteins

1. Anchoring proteins (stabilizers):
attach to inside or outside structures
2. Recognition proteins (identifiers):
label cells normal or abnormal
3. Enzymes:
catalyze reactions
4. Receptor proteins:

bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)

5. Carrier proteins:
transport specific solutes through membrane
6. Channels:
regulate water flow and solutes through membrane

Membrane Carbohydrates
Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids:
extend outside cell membrane
form sticky sugar coat (glycocalyx)

Functions of Membrane Carbohydrates

Lubrication and protection
Anchoring and locomotion
Specificity in binding (receptors)
Recognition (immune response)

Cytoplasm
All materials inside the cell and outside the
nucleus:
cytosol (fluid):
dissolved materials:
nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products

organelles:
structures with specific functions

What are cell organelles & their functions?

Types of Organelles
Nonmembranous organelles:
no membrane
direct contact with cytosol

Membranous organelles:
covered with plasma membrane
isolated from cytosol

6 types of nonmembranous organelles:

cytoskeleton
microvilli
centrioles

cilia
ribosomes
proteasomes

The Cytoskeleton
Structural proteins for shape and
strength
Microfilaments
Thin filaments composed of the
protein actin:
provide additional mechanical strength
interact with proteins for consistency
Pairs with thick filaments of myosin for
muscle movement

Intermediate
Mid-sized between microfilaments
and thick filaments:
durable (collagen)
strengthen cell and maintain shape
stabilize organelles
stabilize cell position

Microtubules
Large, hollow tubes of
tubulin protein:
attach to centrosome
strengthen cell and anchor
organelles
change cell shape
move vesicles within cell
(kinesin and dynein)
form spindle apparatus

Microvilli
Increase surface area for absorption
Attach to cytoskeleton

Centrioles in the Centrosome

Centrioles form spindle
apparatus during cell
division
Centrosome: cytoplasm
surrounding centriole

Cilia Power
Cilia move fluids across the
cell surface

Ribosomes
Build polypeptides in protein
synthesis
Two types:
free ribosomes in cytoplasm:
proteins for cell

fixed ribosomes attached to

ER:
proteins for secretion

Proteasomes
Contain enzymes (proteases)
Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling

Membranous Organelles
5 types of membranous organelles:
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Golgi apparatus
lysosomes
peroxisomes
mitochondria

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

endo = within, plasm = cytoplasm, reticulum =
network
Cisternae are storage chambers within
membranes

Functions of ER
Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
Storage of synthesized molecules and materials
Transport of materials within the ER
Detoxification of drugs or toxins

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

No ribosomes attached
Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates:
phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes)
steroid hormones (reproductive system)
glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells)
glycogen (storage in muscles)

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Surface covered with ribosomes:
active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis
folds polypeptides protein structures
encloses products in transport vesicles

Golgi Apparatus
Vesicles enter forming face and exit maturing face
Secretory vesicles:
modify and package products
for exocytosis

Membrane renewal
vesicles:
add or remove membrane
components

Transport vesicles:

Carry materials to and

from Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes
Powerful enzymecontaining vesicles:
lyso = dissolve,
soma = body

Exocytosis

Primary lysosome:
formed by Golgi
and inactive
enzymes
Secondary
lysosome:
lysosome fused
with damaged
organelle
digestive
enzymes
activated
toxic chemicals
isolated

Ejects secretory products and wastes

Lysosome Functions
Clean up inside cells:
break down large molecules
attack bacteria
recycle damaged organelles
ejects wastes by exocytosis

Autolysis
Self-destruction of damaged cells:
auto = self, lysis = break
lysosome membranes break down
digestive enzymes released
cell decomposes
cellular materials recycle

Peroxisomes

Are enzyme-containing vesicles:

break down fatty acids, organic compounds

produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
replicate by division

KEY CONCEPT
Cells: basic structural and functional
units of life
respond to their environment
maintain homeostasis at the cellular level
modify structure and function over time

Mitochondrion Structure

Mitochondrion Structure
Have smooth outer membrane and folded inner
membrane (cristae)
Matrix:
fluid around cristae
Figure 39a

Mitochondrial Function
Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food
(glucose):
produces energy molecule ATP

Figure 39b

How does the nucleus control the cell?

Is the cells control center
Nucleus:
largest organelle

Nuclear envelope:
double membrane
around the nucleus

Perinuclear space:
between 2 layers of
nuclear envelope

Nuclear pores:
communication
passages

Within the Nucleus

DNA:
all information to build and run organisms

Nucleoplasm:
fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides,
and some RNA

Nuclear matrix:
support filaments

Nucleoli in Nucleus
Are related to protein production
Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones
Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits

Organization of DNA
Nucleosomes:
DNA coiled around
histones

Chromatin:
loosely coiled DNA
(cells not dividing)

Chromosomes:
tightly coiled DNA
(cells dividing)

Figure 311

What is genetic code?

DNA and Genes
DNA:
instructions for every protein in the body

Gene:
DNA instructions for 1 protein

Genetic Code
The chemical language of DNA instructions:
sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)
triplet code:
3 bases = 1 amino acid

KEY CONCEPT
The nucleus contains chromosomes
Chromosomes contain DNA
DNA stores genetic instructions for
proteins
Proteins determine cell structure and
function

How do DNA instructions become proteins?

Protein Synthesis
Transcription:
copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)

Translation:
ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm)
assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain

Processing:
by RER and Golgi apparatus produces protein

1. Important Features
a. DNA contains genetic template"
for proteins.
b. DNA is found in the nucleus
c. Protein synthesis occurs in the
cytoplasm - ribosome.
d. "Genetic information" must be
transferred to the cytoplasm where
proteins are synthesized.

2. Processes of Protein
Synthesis
a. Transcription - genetic
template for a protein is
copied and carried out to the
cytoplasm
b. Translation - template serves
as a series of codes for the
amino acid sequence of the
protein

3. Steps of Transcription
a. DNA unwinds
b. One side of DNA "codes for a
protein"
c. Genetic code of DNA is a triplet
code of 3 nucleotides or bases
d. Each triplet is specific for the
coding of a single amino acid

A view of transcription
Fig. 14.12 Brum

Transcription (cont.)
e. Sequence of triplet codes on DNA will
specify the amino acid sequence on the
protein
f. Major step is the synthesis of the coded
"messenger" molecule - mRNA
g. mRNA is "transcribed" from DNA by
complementary base pairing (mRNA has no
thymine, which is replaced by uracil)
h. mRNA passes out to cytoplasm to the
ribosome

fig. 15.5 from Raven

4. Translation
a. mRNA attaches to the ribosome
b. tRNA's attach to free amino acids
in the cytoplasmic "pool" of amino
acids
c. tRNA carries its specific amino
acid to the ribosome

fig. 15.5 from Raven

Translation (cont.)
d. tRNA "delivers" its amino acid based on
complementary pairing of a triplet code
(anticodon) with the triplet code (codon) of
the mRNA.
e.Enzyme "hooks" the amino acid to the last
one in the chain forming a peptide bond.
f. Protein chain continues to grow as each
tRNA brings in its amino acid and adds it
to the chain. - This is translation!!

fig. 15.5 from Raven

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
U C G UU C A A A

mRNA

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
U C G UU C A A A

Nucleus

mRNA
Cytoplasm

Ribosome

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
U C G UU C A A A

Nucleus

mRNA
Cytoplasm

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT

Nucleus

AA1

Cytoplasm

tRNAs

AGC

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT

Nucleus
ATP
AA1

AA2

Cytoplasm

tRNAs

AGC AAG

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus
ATP
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

AAG U U U

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus

AGC
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

AAG U U U

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus

AGC
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

AAG U U U

U C G UU C A A A

A
A
T
T
C
G
A
C
T
Coding
Stran

AG
T
T
C A AGT
AA1

Nucleus

AGC
AA1

AA2

AA3

Cytoplasm

UUU

U C G UU C A A A

The Genetic Code

1. A triplet code comprised of three nucleotide
bases in a sequence.
2. How many triplet codes?
20 common amino acids in a protein
4 diff. bases on DNA

A,T,C, & G

| | |
4 diff. bases on RNA

U,A,G, & C

4 things put together in combinations of 3 =

43= 64
Therefore - 64 different DNA triplet codes or RNA
codons

The 64 triplet codes

60 code for amino acids
4 act as "stop" and "start " codes
Degenerate Code- more than one
triplet code for some amino acids
e.g.,

The 64 triplet codes

60 code for amino acids
4 act as "stop" and "start codes
Degenerate Code- more than one
triplet code for some amino acids
e.g., GGG
GGU
GGC
GGA

All code for the

amino acid glycine

Codons

Table 32

Nucleus Controls Cell

Structure and Function
Direct control through synthesis of:
structural proteins
secretions (environmental response)

Indirect control over metabolism through

enzymes

KEY CONCEPT
Genes:
are functional units of DNA
contain instructions for 1 or more proteins
Protein synthesis requires:
several enzymes
ribosomes
3 types of RNA
Mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene:
can change gene function
Causes:
exposure to chemicals
exposure to radiation
mistakes during DNA replication

The 7 methods of transport

Table 33

How do cells reproduce?

Cell Life Cycle
Most of a cells life is spent in a nondividing
state (interphase)
Body (somatic) cells divide in 3 stages:
DNA replication duplicates genetic material exactly
Mitosis divides genetic material equally
Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into 2
daughter cells
Figure 33

Interphase
The nondividing period:
G-zero phase
specialized cell functions
only
G1 phasecell growth,
organelle duplication,
protein synthesis
S phaseDNA
replication and histone
synthesis
G2 phasefinishes
protein synthesis and
centriole replication

DNA Replication
DNA strands unwind
DNA polymerase attaches complementary
nucleotides

Figure 324

Somatic Cell Nuclear Division

Two important processes to
maintain constant number of
chromosomes.
Duplication of chromosomes
Distribution of duplicated
chromosomes into two daughter cells

4
2

The Human
Karyotype

9
1

2
1
0
1

7
1

5
1

6
1

8
1

4
1
3
1

9
1

0
2

1
2

X Y

Importance of Mitosis
2N or Diploid Number
in Humans

46

46
Mother Cell

46
Daughter Cells

Importance of Mitosis (cont.)

a.
b.
c.
d.

Cellular replacement
Tissue Repair
Development
Tumor growth

Cell cycle prior to mitosis:

Interphase: nondividing state but cell is
metabolically active.
nucleus clearly visible
one or more nucleoli-nucleolar organizer
regions of chromosomes.
chromosomes long and thin
centriole (animal cells only) located along
margin of nucleus

Replication of DNA and duplication

of chromosomes occurs in the cell
cycle.
Chromatids

Centromere

Prophase:
prepares the cell for division
chromosomes shorten and thicken
centriole divides into two entities
which migrate down sides of
nuclear envelope, spindle fibers
stretch between centrioles

Prophase: The cell is prepared for

nuclear division
Nuclear envelope has disappeared
Spindle has formed
Chromosomes short and thick

Metaphase: final preparation for

nuclear division
chromosomes line up on equatorial plate
of division
centromeres of chromosomes attached
by kinetocores (protein) to spindle fibers,
microtubules made up of tubulin

A single chromosome
attached to spindle fibers

Anaphase: chromosome
halves migrate to poles
centromeres divide
chromosome halves migrate to opposite
poles of cell
chromosomes migrate by sliding of
microtubules

Telophase:
reverse of activities of prophase
chromosomes reach poles of
cell
spindle fibers degraded
nuclear membrane reassembled
chromosomes elongate
nucleoli reassembled

Cytokinesis - division of the cell

Cytokinesis occurs by constriction of actin
fibers forming a belt around cell in animal
cells
Plant cells form a cell plate from nuclear
membrane and then cellulose is added to
the plate.

Animal cell - cytokinesis occurs by

constriction of actin fibers

Plant cell - cytokinesis

occurs by synthesis of
cell plate.

Typical Timing of Mitosis

What regulates cell division?

Mitotic Rate and Energy
Rate of cell division:
slower mitotic rate means longer cell life
cell division requires energy (ATP)

Long Life, Short Life

Muscle cells, neurons rarely divide
Exposed cells (skin and digestive tract)
live only days or hours

Chemicals Controlling Cell Division

Table 34

Regulating Cell Life

Normally, cell division balances cell loss

Factors Increase Cell Division

Increases cell division:
internal factors (Maturation Promoting Factor)
extracellular chemical factors (growth factors)

Factors Decrease Cell Division

Decreases cell division:
repressor genes (faulty repressors cause cancers)
worn out telomeres (terminal DNA segments)

Cancer

Cancer illness that disrupts cellular controls and

Oncogenes: mutated genes that cause cancer
produces malignant cells
Cancer Stages - develops in steps:
abnormal cell
primary tumor
metastasis
secondary tumor

Figure 326

Cell Division and Tumors

Tumor (neoplasm):
enlarged mass of cells
abnormal cell growth and division

Benign Tumors
Benign tumor:
contained
not life threatening

Malignant Tumors
Malignant tumor:
spread into surrounding tissues (invasion)
start new tumors (metastasis)

KEY CONCEPT
Mutations disrupt normal controls over cell
growth and division
Cancers often begin where stem cells are
dividing rapidly
More chromosome copies mean greater
chance of error

What makes cells different?

Cell Diversity
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all
body functions
Cells specialize or differentiate:
to form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons)
by turning off all genes not needed by that cell

All body cells, except sex cells, contain the

same 46 chromosomes
Differentiation depends on which genes are
active and which are inactive