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Theoretical Physics
Course codes: Phys2325
Course Homepage: http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/~phys2325/
Lecturer: Z.D.Wang,
Office: Rm528, Physics Building
Tel:
2859 1961
E-mail: zwang@hkucc.hku.hk
Student Consultation hours: 2:30-4:30pm Tuesday
Tutor: Miss Liu Jia, Rm525
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0
n
z r e
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r z x y
2
1/ 2
tan 1 y / x
z1 z2 ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) i( x1 y2 x2 y2 )
z1 z 2 r1r2 e i 1 2
z / z r / r e i1 2
1
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z n r n e in
z1 z 2 z1 z 2
arg( z1 z2 ) arg( z1 ) arg( z2 )
f z x 2 y 2 i2xy
The relationship between z and f(z) is best pictured as a
mapping operation, we address it in detail later.
7
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Z-plane
ei cos i sin
ein (cos i sin ) n
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z x iy
We then have
zz * x 2 y 2 r 2
Hence
z zz
* 12
Note:
z re i
rei 2n
ln z ln r i
ln z ln r i 2n
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Another possibility
| sin x |, | cos x | 1 for a real x;
however, possibly | sin z |, | cos z | 1 and even
Question:
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z 0
f z z f z
f z df
lim
f z
z 0 z
z
dz
Consider
z x iy
f u iv
f
u iv
z x i y
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Let us take limit by the two different approaches as in the figure. First,
with y = 0, we let x0,
f
v
u
lim
i
z 0 z x 0 x
x
u
v
i
x
x
lim
f
u v
lim
i
z 0 z
y y
x
y
y
x
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These are the famous Cauchy-Riemann conditions. These CauchyRiemann conditions are necessary for the existence of a derivative, that
is, if f x exists, the C-R conditions must hold.
Conversely, if the C-R conditions are satisfied and the partial
derivatives of u(x,y) and v(x,y) are continuous, f z exists. (see the proof
in the text book).
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Analytic functions
If f(z) is differentiable at z z0 and in some small region around z 0 ,
we say that f(z) is analytic at z z0
Differentiable: Cauthy-Riemann conditions are satisfied
the partial derivatives of u and v are continuous
Analytic function:
Property 1:
2u 2 v 0
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z0
j 1
z0
f j z j f z dz
n
lim
The right-hand side of the above equation is called the contour (path)
15 integral of f(z)
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x2 y2
c z1
c x1 y1
x2 y2
x2 y2
c x1 y1
c x1 y1
with the path C specified. This reduces the complex integral to the
complex sum of real integrals. Its somewhat analogous to the case of
the vector integral.
An important example
z n dz
c
where C is a circle of radius r>0 around the origin z=0 in
the direction of counterclockwise.
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1
2i
z rei
n 1 2
r
z dz
2
n
expin 1 d
0
0
for n -1
{
1
for n - 1
which is independent of r.
Cauchys integral theorem
If a function f(z) is analytical (therefore single-valued) [and its partial
derivatives are continuous] through some simply connected region R,
for every closed path C in R,
f z dz 0
c
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s
A Ax x A y y
Using
We have
and
ds dxdyz
Ax dx Ay dy A d l A d s
c
A y A x
dxdy
y
x
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v u
udx vdy dxdy
x y
c
v
u
y ]
[since C-R conditions x
=0
For the imaginary part, setting u = Ay and v = Ax, we have
vdx udy u v dxdy 0
x y
f zdz 0
As for a proof without using the continuity condition, see the text book.
The consequence of the theorem is that for analytic functions the line
integral is a function only of its end points, independent of the path of
integration,
z2
z1
z1
z2
f z dz F z 2 F z1 f z dz
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1.6 Fig.
Cauchys integral theorem is not valid for the contour C, but we can
construct a C for which the theorem holds. If line segments DE and
GA arbitrarily close together, then
A
f z dz f z dz
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f z dz
f z dz
C
ABD DE GA EFG
ABDEFGA
f z dz 0
ABD EFG
f z dz f z dz
C1
ABD C1'
C2
EFG C2'
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f z dz
z z0
C2
f z
dz 0
z z0
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C2
f z dz
dz
z z0
(r0)
C2
f z 0 re i
re i
rie d
i
if z 0 d 2if z 0
C2
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1
2i
f z dz f z 0 ,
z z0
0,
z 0 interior
z 0 exterior
Derivatives
Cauchys integral formula may be used to obtain an expression for
the derivation of f(z)
d 1
f z0
dz0 2 i
1
2i
f z dz
z z0
d
f z dz
dz 0
1
1
z z 0 2i
n!
n
f z 0
2i
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f z dz
z z0 n1
f z dz
z z 0 2
We now see that, the requirement that f(z) be analytic not only
guarantees a first derivative but derivatives of all orders as well! The
derivatives of f(z) are automatically analytic. Here, it is worth to
indicate that the converse of Cauchys integral theorem holds as well
Moreras theorem:
If a function f(z) is continuous in a simply connectedregion R
and f ( z )dz 0 for every closed C within R, then f(z) is
C
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Examples
1. If f ( z ) a n z n is analytic on and within
n0
a n z n j
n j 1
f j 0 j! a j
f n 0
1
an
n!
2i
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f z dz
z n1
where
1
2
z r
f z dz
z n 1
M r
2r
2r n 1
M
rn
M r Max z r f r
2i
2 R 2
z z 0 2
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f
z
a
z
n
0
Suppose we are trying to expand f(z) about z=z0, i.e.,
n 0
and we have z=z1 as the nearest point for which f(z) is not analytic. We
construct a circle C centered at z=z0 with radius z z0 z1 z0
1 f z dz
1
f z dz
2i C z z
2i C z z 0 z z 0
1
f z dz
2i C z z 0 1 z z 0 z z 0
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tn
n 0
So we may write
1
f z
2i
1
2i
z z 0 n f z dz
z 0 n1
z
n
0
C
z z 0 n
z 0 n 1
z
C
n 0
z z 0
f z dz
f n z 0
n!
n 0
which is our
desired Taylor expansion, just as for real variable power
series, this expansion is unique for a given z0.
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g
z
x
From the binomial expansion of
for integer n (as an
0
assignment), it is easy to see, for real x0
g z z x 0
*
n *
x0
g z*
We expand f(z) about some point (nonsingular) point x0 on the real axis
because f(z)
is analytic at
n z=x0.
f z
z x 0 n
x0
n!
n 0
z z *
x0
n 0
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x0
n!
f z*
Laurent Series
We frequently encounter functions that are analytic in
annular region
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1
f z
2i
C2
C1
f z dz
z z
z z 0 z z 0
We let r2 r and r1 R, so for C1,
while for C2, z z 0
We expand
two denominators as we did before
1
f z dz
f z dz
f z
2i z z 0 1 z z 0 z z 0
z z 0 1 z z 0 z z 0
C2
C1
1
z z 0 n
2i n0
f z
f z dz
z z0 n1
C1
a n z z 0 n (Laurent Series)
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1
1
2i n0 z z 0 n1
z z 0
C2
f z dz
z z.0
where
an
1
2i
f z dz
z z 0 n1
Here C may be any contour with the annular region r < |zz0| < R encircling z0 once in a counterclockwise sense.
Laurent Series need not to come from evaluation of contour
integrals. Other techniques such as ordinary series
expansion may provide the coefficients.
Numerous examples of Laurent series appear in the next
chapter.
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Example:
(1) Find Taylor expansion ln(1+z) at point z
(2) find Laurent series of the function
1
an
2i
z n1
1
dz
1
z z 1 2i
ln(1 z ) ( 1)
n 1
f z zz 1
m 0
dz
z n2
1
rie i d
an
2i m 0 r n 2 m e i n 2 m
2i
n 2 m,1
2i
m 0
1
an
0
The Laurent expansion becomes
for n -1
for n - 1
1
1
1 z z2 z3 zn
z z 1
z
n 1
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n 1
zn
n
Analytic continuation
f z 1 1 z
For example
1
f ( z)
;
1 z
f1 ( z ) ;
n
n 0
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1 z i
f2
1 i n 0 z i
1
1 z z2
1 z
n 0
1
1
1 i z i 1 i 1 z i 1 i
1
zi
z i
converges
1 ifor
1 i
1 i 2 (Fig.1.10)
z i 1 i 2
A beautiful theory:
If two analytic functions coincide in any region, such as the overlap of s1 and s2,
of coincide on any line segment, they are the same function in the sense that they
37 will coincide everywhere as long as they are well-defined.
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