BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

ZIKMUND & BABIN

Qualitative Research Methods

Ch. 7

Learning Objectives
At the end of this discussion you should be able to:
1. Explain the differences between qualitative and
quantitative research methods
2. Explain the role of qualitative research in
exploratory research designs
3. List and explain the main qualitative research
orientations
4. List and explain key characteristics of common
techniques used in qualitative research
5. Identify and describe the advantages and
disadvantages of these techniques

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Research techniques that allow a researcher to obtain

elaborate interpretations of market phenomena
without depending on numerical measurements.
Characteristics
1. Uses small versus large samples
2. Emphasizes unstructured (broad range of) versus
structured questioning methods
3. Involves subjective interpretation rather than
objective statistical inference; is researcherdependent
4. Has an exploratory purpose rather than descriptive and
conclusive

Uses Of Qualitative Research

When it is difficult to develop specific actionable

problem statement or research objectives.

When the research objective is develop an
understanding of some phenomena in great detail
and depth.
When the research objective is to learn how a
phenomena occurs in a natural setting or to learn
how to express some concepts in conversation.
When a behavior is context dependent.
When a fresh approach is to studying some problem
is needed.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Research
The key to successfully using either is to match
right approach to right research context.
Many good research projects combine both
qualitative and quantitative research.
Quantitative research is a business research
that address research objectives through
empirical assessment that involve numerical
measurement and analysis approaches.
Qualitative researchers are more involved in
observing, listening, and interpreting.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative
Research

Quantitative
Research

Purpose

Discover ideas

Approach

Observe and interpret

Test hypotheses or
specific research
questions
Measure and test

Data Collection
Methods
Researcher
Independence

Unstructured; freeforms

Structured; response
categories provided

Researcher is
intimately involved;
results are subjective
Small samples often
natural setting

Researcher is
uninvolved; results are
objective
Large samples to allow
generalization

Sample

Most often used in: Exploratory research

designs

Descriptive and causal

research designs

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Research
Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Objective

To gain a qualitative
understanding of the
underlying reasons and
motivations

To quantify the data and

generalize the results from
the sample to the population
of interest

Sample

Small number of nonrepresentative cases

Large number of
representative cases

Data Collection

Unstructured

Structured

Data Analysis

Non-statistical

Statistical

Outcome

Develop an initial
understanding

Recommend a final course of

action

Contrasting Exploratory and

confirmatory Research
Research can be considered as exploratory or
confirmatory.
Most exploratory research designs produces

qualitative data.
Exploratory design do not produce
quantitative data that assigns numbers in an
ordered meaningful way.
Often, exploratory research is needed to
develop the ideas that lead to research
hypotheses.

Qualitative Research
Orientations

1.

2.
3.
4.

Four main qualitative research orientations

Phenomenology originating in philosophy
and psychology
Ethnography origins in anthropology
Grounded theory originates from
sociology
Case studies roots in psychology and
business research

Phenomenology

Based on the ideas that:

1. human experience is inherently subjective and determined

by the context in which a person lives

2. behavior is shaped by a persons relationship with the
environment in which s/he lives
3. therefore the best way to understand this behavior is to
understand the context in which the behavior occurs
4. this engaging in a conversational interview with the
subject

Researcher may need to become part of the group

to effectively study it
Special form is hermeneutics relying on analysis of
texts in which a person tells a story about
themselves

Ethnography
Methods of studying cultures through becoming

highly active in the culture.

Typically uses observation as a data collection
tool, hence the term participant-observation.
The observation can be human or mechanical; but
is often purposeful, i.e. focusing on specific
features of behaviors that are of interest to the
study

Grounded Theory
Inductive investigation process in which the
researcher uses empirical evidence to develop a
theory for explaining a given phenomenon
Researcher repeatedly poses questions about
the observed evidence and uses the responses to
develop a deeper explanation (theory)
Particularly applicable in dynamic situations
involving significant change where new
insights are needed to explain phenomena that
have not been previously encountered

Case Studies
Documented history of a particular person,
group, organization, or event.
This intense examination of one or a few
situations typically:
Involves in-depth investigation and careful study
Requires cooperation from the investigated

subjects (cases)

Case analyses are used to develop themes

that can help explain a phenomenon

Used extensively in business research and
teaching

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TOOLS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Focus group interviews (discussions)

Depth interviews
Conversations
Semi-structured interviews
Word Association/Sentence completion
Observation
Collages
Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT)/Cartoon
Tests

1. Focus Group Interviews

(Discussions)

Unstructured, free-flowing interview

(discussion) with a small group of people about

the subject area of the research
Unstructured
Free flowing
Group discussion

Group Composition
About 6-10 people
Relatively homogeneous
Similar lifestyles and experiences

Now sometimes conducted online Online Focus

Groups
Approach: Ethnography,, Case studies

The Focus Group Moderator

The person in charge of moderating the group

discussions
Usually he:
Develops rapport - helps people relax

Interacts
Listens to what people have to say
Everyone gets a chance to speak

Maintains loose control and focuses discussion

Stimulates spontaneous responses

2. Depth Interviews
Unstructured, extensive one-on-one interviews

conducted with subjects of ultimate concern

(typically consumers or customers).
Purpose is to gain valuable insights for the main
study
May sometimes involve testing aspects of the
research design, such as questionnaire clarity,
length, etc
Approach: Ethnography, Grounded theory, Case
studies

3. Conversations
Unstructured dialogue in which researcher

engages the respondent in a discussion of the

subject matter of interest
Combines features of focus group and depth
interviews
Similar to depth interview (in the sense of engaging

one respondent at a time)

Similar to focus group discussion in the sense of
allowing free discussion rather than asking specific
questions

Approach: Phenomenology; grounded theory

4. Semi-Structured
Interviews
Open-ended questions with answers solicited
in writing typically in the form of short
essays
Respondents are free to write as much as or
as little as they choose
Requires the researcher to prepare the

questions (opening and follow-up questions)

in advance
Approach: Grounded theory; ethnography

5a. Word Association Tests

A projective technique in which subjects are

presented with a word and asked to indicate
what other words come to mind, e.g.
What comes to mind when you hear the
following words?

Soft drinks
Mercedes

Technique may be used to develop an

associative network of words related to a focal
word
Useful in brand name testing and product
concept testing

5b. Sentence Completion

Tests

A projective technique in which subjects are

given incomplete sentences and asked to
complete them with the word or phrase that
first comes to mind, e.g.

People who drive sports cars are __________

2. A man who drinks light beer is ____________
3. Sports cars are most liked by ______________
4. A sports car is ______________
1.

6. Observation
Unobtrusive data collection method in which
the researcher watches a phenomenon and
records notes describing the phenomenon

(e.g. a behavior)
Observation can be personal or mechanical;
disguised or undisguised; structured or
unstructured, etc
Approach: Grounded theory; ethnography;
case studies

7. Collages
Collage a pattern (larger picture, story, etc)
made by sticking pictures or materials on a
surface
In this research method, respondents are
asked to assemble pictures to represent their
thoughts/feelings about a phenomenon
Collages are then analyzed for meaning
Approach: Phenomenology; Grounded

theory

8a. Thematic Apperception Tests

(T.A.T.)
A projective technique in which subjects are

presented with a series of pictures and are then

asked to form a story about the pictures
TAT Illustration.ppt (Hamilton Power Tools
Corporation)

8b. Picture Frustration (Cartoon)

Tests
Respondent is presented with a cartoon
drawing representing an incomplete
dialogue and asked to suggest a dialogue

that the characters might engage in

See p. 153 of your text

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
A collection of exploratory research techniques
based on indirect questioning in which respondents

are asked to project themselves into a particular

person, object, or situation
Often used where direct questioning is not likely to
provide honest responses
Word association tests
Sentence completion method
Third-person technique
Role playing
T.A.T.
Picture frustration version of T.A.T.