Technology
John du Plessis
SAIW
2 November 2006
Agenda
Properties of Material
Material Structure
Elements - 118
Atoms
Electrons
Protons
Neutrons
States of Matter
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Plasma
Material Bonds
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
Covalent Bond
Two or more atoms share electrons
C + 4H = CH4
Metallic Bond
Atoms share a cloud of electrons which is
free to move throughout the metallic
structure
Ionic Bond
One element gives up electrons to another
forming two charged particles, which forms
a bond.
Ionic Bond
One element gives up electrons to another
forming two charged particles, which forms
a bond.
Na+ + Cl- NaCl
Ionic Bond
Crystal Structure
7 Major Crystal Systems
Triclinic
Monoclinic
Orthorombic
Rhombohedron (Trigonal)
Hexagonal
Tetragonal
Cubic
Crystal structure
Metals
Cubic
Hexagonal
Crystallization
The transition from liquid to the solid state
Nuclei Formation
Crystal growth
Crystallization
Crystallization
Crystallization
Crystal Imperfections
Point Imperfection
Vacancy
Interstitial atom
Foreign atom
Linear Imperfection
Dislocations
Grain boundaries
Crystal Imperfections
Lattice Vacancy
Interstitial Atom
Edge Dislocation
Edge Dislocation
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation
Dislocations in Copper
Grain Size
Grain size is determined by
Rate of nucleation
Rate of growth
Grain Boundary
Grain Size
Elastic Deformation
The recovery of the original dimensions of
a deformed body when the load is
removed.
The limiting load beyond which a material
no longer behaves elastically is the elastic
limit.
Elastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
On exceeding of the elastic limit the body
will experience a permanent set of
deformation when the load is removed i.e.
will not return to its original dimensions
Plastic Deformation
What is Stress ?
Definition of Stress
Average stress
Load
--------------------------cross sectional area
Definition of Strain
Average linear strain
=
Hookes Law
Stress is proportional to strain
Average Stress
----------------Average strain
= E (Young's Modulus)
Properties of Metals
Mechanical
Physical
Corrosion
Optical
Nuclear
Mechanical Properties
Modulus of Elasticity
E = Stress / Strain
Decrease with Increase in Temperature
Structure Insensitive
Modulus of Elasticity
Mechanical Properties
Tensile Strength
= Maximum Load / original cross sectional area
Structure Sensitive
Mechanical Properties
Yield Strength
point where increase in strain occurs
with an increase in stress
Structure Sensitive
Chemical composition, Structure, Grain size,
strain history, Temperature etc
Mechanical Properties
Fatigue Strength
Maximum stress that can be sustained for
a stated number of cycles without failure
Stress raisers lowers fatigue limit
Mechanical Properties
Ductility
The amount of plastic deformation before
fracture
Structure sensitive
Size and shape of test specimen, temperature,
strain rate, microstructure etc.
Mechanical Properties
Fracture Toughness
Ability to resist fracture in the presence of
a notch
Structure sensitive
Strain rate
Nature of the load
Temperature
Physical Properties
Thermal Conductivity
Melting Temperature
Thermal Expansion and Contraction
Electrical Conductivity
Corrosion Properties
Resistance to various corrosive media
either acidic or basic.
Weld joints behave differently from the
base metal
Material tests
Tensile test
Compression test
Fatigue test
Creep test
Impact test
Bend test
Hardness test
Tensile Test
Tensile Test
Answers
UTS
=
=
=
=
Elongation
%Elongation
Load / area
107.6 kN / (102 / 4) mm2
107.6 / 78.54
1370 MPa
=
=
=
=
Fatigue Testing
Fatigue Test
Fatigue Test
S N curve
Stress vs. Number of
cycles
Fatigue / endurance
limit
Fatigue Test
Creep
Plastic deformation of a material which
occurs as a function of time when the
material is subjected to constant stress or
load
Normally associated with elevated
temperature
Creep
Impact testing
Measure of ductility
Temperature dependant
Izod
Charpy
Impact Testing
Impact Testing
Bend Test
Measure of ductility
Bend Test
Hardness Test
Brinell
Rockwell
Vickers
Microhardness
Scleroscope
Rockwell Hardness
HV = 1.854F / d2
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment processes are used to change the
properties or conditions of the material:
Phases of Fe Fe3C
Ferrite
Austenite
Delta Ferrite
Cementite
Austenite
This is the face centered cubic structure of
steel (Gamma Iron). It is a solid stage
structure stable only at high temperatures
(910C - 1400C).
Can dissolve up to 2% Carbon due to the
larger interstitial openings between the
atoms
Austenite
Ferrite
This is a body centered cubic structure of
steel. (Alpha Iron).
It is a solid stage structure stable at room
temperature can only accommodate
0.008% Carbon at room temperature and
0.025% Carbon at 723C due to the small
interstitial openings
Ferrite
Cementite
This is a crystalline compound of iron and
carbon (Fe3C) with an orthorhombic
crystal structure. It contains 6.67%C by
weight.
Transformation Products
Pearlite
Martensite
Bainite
Pearlite
Cementite and Ferrite
join in a lamellar form
to produce Pearlite.
Martensite
This structure is
obtained when
Austenite is fast
cooled and thus
transforms to body
centered tetragonal.
Bainite
Austenite decomposes
to form Ferrite and
Carbide. Forms in the
temperature region
between where
Martensite and Pearlite
forms
Heat Treatment
Annealing
Normalizing
Stress Relieving
Hardening and Tempering
Annealing
Conventional Annealing is the process of slowly raising the
temperature about 50 C above the Austenitic temperature line A3
or line ACM in the case of Hypoeutectoid steels (steels with < 0.77%
Carbon) and 50 C into the Austenite-Cementite region in the case
of Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.77% Carbon).
Holding at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material to
transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case may be.
It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 C/hr in a furnace.
The grain structure consist of coarse Pearlite with Ferrite or
Cementite (depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid).
The steel becomes soft and ductile when annealed.
Annealing
Process Annealing
Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened
parts made out of low-Carbon steels (< 0.25% Carbon).
This allows the parts to be soft enough to undergo
further cold working without fracturing.
Process annealing is done by raising the temperature to
just below the Ferrite-Austenite region, line A1on the
diagram. This temperature is about 727 C so heating it
to about 700 C should suffice. This is held long enough
to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase, and then
cooled in still air.
Since the material stays in the same phase through out
the process, the only change that occurs is the size,
shape and distribution of the grain structure.
Spheroidization
Spheroidization is an annealing process used for high carbon
steels (Carbon > 0.6%).
1.Heat to a temperature just below the Ferrite-Austenite line, line A1
or below the Austenite-Cementite line, essentially below the 727 C
line. Hold the temperature for a prolonged time and follow by fairly
slow cooling.
Annealing
Normalizing
Heating of steel to temperature above the
upper critical line (A3 or Acm) and cooling
in still air to room temperature.
Grain refinement
Alleviate chemical segregation
Steel is harder and stronger than when
annealed
Normalizing
Stress Relieving
Stress relieving is done by subjecting the parts to a
temperature of about 75 C below the transformation
temperature, line A1 on the diagram, which is about
727 C of steel.
Hardening
Heat to Austenite region
Fast cooling Quench in oil or water
Austenite transforms to Martensite
Tempering
Tempering is a process done subsequent to quench
hardening. Quench-hardened parts are often too brittle.
This brittleness is caused by a predominance of
Martensite. This brittleness is removed by tempering.
Tempering results in a desired combination of hardness,
ductility, toughness, strength, and structural stability.
The mechanism of tempering depends on the steel and
the tempering temperature. The prevalent Martensite is a
somewhat unstable structure. When heated, the Carbon
atoms diffuse from Martensite to form a carbide
precipitate and the concurrent formation of Ferrite and
Cementite, which is the stable form.
Tempering
Heating of the hardened steel to some
temperature below the lower critical
temperature
Relieves stress
Improves ductility and toughness
Reduces hardness and strength
Tempering
Hardening
Austempering
Austempering is a quenching technique.
The material is quenched above the temperature
where Martensite starts to form.
It is held till at this temperature till the entire part
reaches this temperature. The Austenite
transforms into Bainite. Bainite is tough enough
so that further tempering is not necessary, and
the tendency to crack is severely reduced.
Martempering
Martempering is similar to Austempering except
that the part is slowly cooled through the
martensite transformation region.
Hardenability
Not Hardness
Relative ease of transforming austenite to
martensite.
Jominy test
Jominy Test
Jominy Test
Flame Hardening
Induction Hardening
Carburizing
Pack Carburizing
Carburizing
Nitriding
Ferritic thermo chemical treatment
Al, Cr, Mo
500 - 590C
Diffusion reaction
No transformation on cooling
Nitriding
Nitriding
Nitriding
High surface hardness
High wear strength
High temper resistance
High temperature hardness is good
Induction Hardening
Electric coil magnetic field eddy
currents heat material
Localized heating and cooling
%C > 0.25
Induction Hardening
Induction Hardening
Flame Hardening
Heat workpiece with flame and direct
quenching or air cooling
0.3 > %C < 0.6
Stress relieve after quenching
Flame Hardening
Corrosion
Corrosion is nature's method
whereby metals and alloys
return to their un-refined
naturally occurring forms as
ores and minerals. Metals
such as iron, nickel, zinc,
aluminum and copper occur
naturally as oxides as well as
sulfides and carbonates.
Definition of Corrosion
Removal of material
or degradation of the
properties of a metal
by chemical or
electrochemical
processes, or by a
combination of
chemical,
electrochemical and
mechanical
processes.
Corrosion Cell
Corrosion
Galvanic Series
Corrosion
Selective leaching
Galvanic corrosion
Pitting corrosion
Intergranular corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking
Selective Leaching
Pitting Corrosion
Elevated Temperature
Steady deterioration occurs when exposed
to high temperature for long periods
Strength and Hardness decrease with
increased temperature
Thermal cycling i.e. mill rolls, continuous
castor rolls
Steel Making
Blast furnace
Iron is produced in
the blast furnace from
ore, coke and
limestone.
2.
3.
Processing of Material
Processing of Material
Casting
Rolling
Extrusion
Powder Metallurgy
Pipe and Tube making
Forging
Drawing
Stamping
Pressing
Casting
Liquid steel must be cast into shapes so that it can be
rolled. This can be done by continuous casting machines
that mould the liquid steel into different sized shapes
called slabs, blooms and billets or by individual mould
casting
Some of the advantages of continuous casting compared
to individual moulds are:
More consistent composition and dimension.
Better surface and internal quality.
Higher yield.
Energy savings.
Less labour intensive.
Continuous Casting
Continuous Casting
1) Before casting begins a dummy bar is used to close the bottom of
the mould.
2) A ladle of molten steel is lifted above the casting machine and a
hole in the bottom of the ladle is opened, allowing the liquid steel to
pour into the mould to form the required shape.
3) As the steel's outer surface solidifies in the mould, the dummy bar is
slowly withdrawn through the machine, pulling the steel with it.
4) Water sprays along the machine to cool/solidify the steel.
5) At the end of the machine, the steel is cut to the required length by
gas torches.
Continuous Casting
Sand Casting
ADVANTAGES
Least Expensive Casting Process
Castings can be up to Several
Tons
Less Expensive than Machining
Shapes from Bar Stock
Can Cast Intricate Shapes
Can be Used with Most Pourable
Metals and Alloys
DISADVANTAGES
Can Only Cast Basic Part Shape
Castings Require Secondary
Machining
Rough Surface Finish
Die Casting
ADVANTAGES
Complex shapes possible
Thin wall section possible
High production rates
High dimensional accuracy
Minimum surface treatment prior
to plating
DISADVANTAGES
Castings generally limited to 5 kg
or less
Voids & Porosity is possible in
complex shapes
Expensive machinery & dies
Limited to metals with low melting
points (normally no higher than
copper-based alloys)
Investment Casting
ADVANTAGES
Complex Shapes Possible
Thin Wall Section Possible
High Production Rates
High Dimensional Accuracy
Can be Used With Most Pourable
Metals and Alloys
Minimum Surface Treatment Prior
to Plating
Parts Can be Used "As Cast"
DISADVANTAGES
Castings Generally Limited to 2.5
kg or Less
Expensive Dies for Wax Pattern
Expensive Unit Cost, Labor
Intensive
Casting Defects
Some common casting deficiencies are:
Inclusions
Porosity (blow holes, pinholes)
Cold Cracking
Hot Cracking
Cold Shuts
Surface irregularities
Distortion
Improper composition
Casting Defects
Blister
Hot Tear
Cold Shut
Porosity
Casting Defects
Solidification Cracks
Solidification Cracks
Surface Shrinkage
Surface Shrinkage
Casting Defect
Warped Casting
Rolling
Cast steel is a relatively weak mass of coarse, uneven grains.
Rolling causes this coarse grain structure to re-crystallize into a
much finer grain structure, giving greater toughness, shock
resistance and tensile (stress) strength.
There are two types of rolling - hot and cold. The rolling process
consists of passing the steel between two rolls revolving at the same
speed but in opposite directions. The gap between the rolls is
smaller than the steel being rolled, so that the steel is reduced in
thickness and at the same time lengthened.
One set of rollers is called a stand, and in any one mill there can be
a number of stands. One length of steel can pass through a stand a
number of times so that it is gradually reduced in size and
progressively rolled to the desired shape. A slab 230mm thick can
end up only 1.5mm thick, but many times longer, after the hot rolling
process.
Rolling
Hot Rolling
Before hot rolling, slabs, blooms and billets are heated in
a furnace to about 1200C. This makes it easier to roll
the steel and removes the rough, flaky surface, or scale.
Cold Rolling
Certain types of steel are also cold rolled after hot rolling.
Before cold rolling the steel is cleaned with acid (pickled)
to remove the scale. Cold rolling is carried out at room
temperature and is rolled at very fast speeds using
lubricants to reduce friction. Cold rolling increases
strength, makes steel thinner and produces a bright
smooth surface.
Hot Rolling
Ring Rolling
Cold Rolling
Rolling Defects
Non uniform dimensions
Waviness
Cracking
Inclusions
Laminations
Extrusion
Extrusion
Indirect extrusion
With indirect extrusion the billet is upsetted first in the container. Here a dummy
block locks the container from one side and
from the other side penetrates the die,
which pushes away against a hollow stem,
into the container.
During extrusion process billet and
container move together, so that no
relative motion between billet and container
is registered.
Direct extrusion
This process is the most common
in the industry.
With this process the billet in the
container is upsetted, so that
it assumes the bore diameter of
the container. Afterwards it is
pressed by the stem through the
die.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
With hydrostatic extrusion
the billet in the container is
surrounded with fluid media.
The container space is sealed
on the stem and the die side,
so that the penetrating stem
can compress the hydro
static medium without the
stem touching the billet.
Extrusion Profiles
Extrusion Defects
Surface cracks
Longitudinal laminations
Axial hole or funnel
Variation in structure and properties
Forging Defects
Surface cracks
Cold shut / fold
Forged in scale
Internal cracks
Drawing
Deep Drawing
Stamping
Pressing
Forming Defects
Cracks
Local thinning and buckling
Dimensional instability
Orange peel
Welding Processes
Welding Processes
Versatile
Many electrode types
All positions
Range of thicknesses
GMAW Equipment
Spray Transfer
Globular Transfer
Amperage
Voltage
Travel speed
Electrode extension
Shielding gas
Steel
Stainless Steel
Ni, Cu
Ti
Use Ar
T>15mm Use Ar+He
CO2; Ar, Ar+O2+CO2
Ar, Ar +CO2
Ar, Ar+He
Ar
Excellent quality
All positions
Spatter free
Low deposition
Expensive equipment
Experienced operator
Oxyfuel Welding
Friction Welding
Stud Welding
Ultrasonic Welding
Electroslag Welding
Explosion Welding
Diffusion Welding
Laser Welding
Weld Defects
Common Engineering
Materials
Steel Types
Low Carbon Steel ( 0 0.25%C)
Medium Carbon Steel (0.25 0.6%C)
High Carbon Steel (0.60 2.0%C)
Steel Types
Low Alloy Steel
Galvanized Steel
Galvanized Steel
Zn Coated steel
Cast irons
2- 6.67 % Carbon
White cast iron
Stainless steels
Ferritic
Martensitic
Austenitic
Duplex
Precipitation hardening
Shock resistant,
Good weldability
Pulp handling, boiler shells, food and chemical
handling, heat treatment equipment
Aluminium
Four-digit number Alloying element(s)
1XXX
2XXX
aluminium-copper alloys
3XXX
aluminium-manganese alloys
4XXX
aluminium-silicon alloys
5XXX
aluminium-magnesium alloys
6XXX
aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys
7XXX
aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys
8XXX
Nickel
Solid solution alloys
Solid solution alloys are pure nickel, Ni-Cu
alloys and the simpler Fe-Ni-Cr alloys
Precipitation hardening alloys
Precipitation hardening alloys include NiCu-Al-Ti, Ni-Cr-Al-Ti and Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb-AlTi.
Nickel
Copper
Copper Alloys
Brass
Bronze
Cupronickel
Nickel Silver (Cu,Ni,Zn)
Properties of Brass
Good Strength
Excellent Machinability
Corrosion Resistance
Good conductivity
Thermal
Electrical
Wear resistance
Non-sparking
Attractive colour
Readily recycled
Properties of Bronzes
High strength
High toughness
Corrosion resistant
Low coefficient of friction
Properties of Cupronickels
Cannot be heat treated cold work only
High resistance to corrosion fatigue
Corrosion resistant
Plastic
Plastic
All plastics are polymers, but not all polymers
are plastics.
Monomer = the subunit that is repeated many
times
Polymer = the collection of subunits
The choice of monomer and the combinations of
different monomers determines the properties of
the material.