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Material Science and Process

Technology

John du Plessis

SAIW
2 November 2006

Agenda

Relation of NDT to Manufacturing


Properties of Material
Material Tests
Heat Treatment
Corrosion
Modern Steelmaking
Processing of Material
Welding Processes
Common Engineering Materials

Non Destructive Testing


NDT is essential for :
Quality control of material

QC of manufacturing processes and final


product
In service reliability of components
Maintenance of systems

Properties of Material

Material Structure
Elements - 118
Atoms
Electrons
Protons
Neutrons

States of Matter
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Plasma

Material Bonds
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic

Van der Waals forces

Covalent Bond
Two or more atoms share electrons
C + 4H = CH4

Metallic Bond
Atoms share a cloud of electrons which is
free to move throughout the metallic
structure

Ionic Bond
One element gives up electrons to another
forming two charged particles, which forms
a bond.

Ionic Bond
One element gives up electrons to another
forming two charged particles, which forms
a bond.
Na+ + Cl- NaCl

Ionic Bond

Van der Waals Force

Crystal Structure
7 Major Crystal Systems
Triclinic
Monoclinic
Orthorombic
Rhombohedron (Trigonal)
Hexagonal
Tetragonal
Cubic

Crystal structure
Metals
Cubic
Hexagonal

Body Centered Cubic


Face Centered Cubic

Closed Packed Hexagonal

Body Centered Cubic

Unit cell contains 2 atoms

Face Centered Cubic

Unit cell contains 4 atoms

Hexagonal Closed Packed

Crystallization
The transition from liquid to the solid state
Nuclei Formation
Crystal growth

Cooling : Liquid to Solid

Cooling : Liquid to Solid

Crystallization

Crystallization

Crystallization

Crystal Imperfections
Point Imperfection
Vacancy
Interstitial atom
Foreign atom

Linear Imperfection
Dislocations
Grain boundaries

Crystal Imperfections

Lattice Vacancy

Interstitial Atom

Edge Dislocation

Edge Dislocation

Screw Dislocation

Screw Dislocation

Dislocations in Copper

Grain Size
Grain size is determined by
Rate of nucleation
Rate of growth

Nucleation and Growth

Grain Boundary

Grain Size

Strength and Deformation

Elastic Deformation
The recovery of the original dimensions of
a deformed body when the load is
removed.
The limiting load beyond which a material
no longer behaves elastically is the elastic
limit.

Elastic Deformation

Plastic Deformation
On exceeding of the elastic limit the body
will experience a permanent set of
deformation when the load is removed i.e.
will not return to its original dimensions

Plastic Deformation

What is Stress ?

Definition of Stress
Average stress

Load
--------------------------cross sectional area

Definition of Strain
Average linear strain
=

Ratio of change in the length


to the original length

Hookes Law
Stress is proportional to strain
Average Stress
----------------Average strain

= E (Young's Modulus)

Properties of Metals
Mechanical
Physical
Corrosion
Optical
Nuclear

Mechanical Properties
Modulus of Elasticity
E = Stress / Strain
Decrease with Increase in Temperature

Structure Insensitive

Modulus of Elasticity

Mechanical Properties
Tensile Strength
= Maximum Load / original cross sectional area
Structure Sensitive

Chemical composition, Structure, Grain size, strain


history, Temperature etc.

Mechanical Properties
Yield Strength
point where increase in strain occurs
with an increase in stress
Structure Sensitive
Chemical composition, Structure, Grain size,
strain history, Temperature etc

Mechanical Properties
Fatigue Strength
Maximum stress that can be sustained for
a stated number of cycles without failure
Stress raisers lowers fatigue limit

Mechanical Properties
Ductility
The amount of plastic deformation before
fracture
Structure sensitive
Size and shape of test specimen, temperature,
strain rate, microstructure etc.

Mechanical Properties
Fracture Toughness
Ability to resist fracture in the presence of
a notch
Structure sensitive
Strain rate
Nature of the load
Temperature

Physical Properties
Thermal Conductivity
Melting Temperature
Thermal Expansion and Contraction
Electrical Conductivity

Corrosion Properties
Resistance to various corrosive media
either acidic or basic.
Weld joints behave differently from the
base metal

Material tests

Tensile test
Compression test
Fatigue test
Creep test
Impact test
Bend test
Hardness test

Tensile Test

Tensile Test

Question on tensile testing


Calculate the ultimate tensile strength of a
round steel tensile. Diameter 10 mm. Load
at fracture was 107.6 KN.
Calculate elongation. Original gauge
length was 25.01mm. Final gauge length
is 31.58 mm

Answers
UTS

=
=
=
=

Elongation

%Elongation

Load / area
107.6 kN / (102 / 4) mm2
107.6 / 78.54
1370 MPa
=
=
=
=

(Lfinal Loriginal) / Loriginal


(31.58 25.01) /25.01
0.26
26

Fatigue Testing

Fatigue Test

Fatigue Test
S N curve
Stress vs. Number of
cycles
Fatigue / endurance
limit

Effect of stress type


and concentrations

Fatigue Test

Creep
Plastic deformation of a material which
occurs as a function of time when the
material is subjected to constant stress or
load
Normally associated with elevated
temperature

Creep

Impact testing
Measure of ductility
Temperature dependant
Izod
Charpy

Impact Testing

Impact Testing

Ductile to Brittle Transition


Temperature (DBTT)

Bend Test
Measure of ductility

Bend Test

Hardness Test
Brinell
Rockwell
Vickers

Microhardness
Scleroscope

Brinell Hardness Test

10 mm ball - 3000kg load

Rockwell Hardness

Rockwell Hardness Test

Vickers Hardness Test

Vickers Hardness Test

HV = 1.854F / d2

Micro hardness test

Scleroscope Hardness Test


The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond
tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube under the
force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test
specimen. The height of the rebound travel of the
hammer is measured on a graduated scale.

In normal use the shore Scleroscope test does not mark


the material under test.
The Shore Scleroscope measures hardness in terms of
the elasticity of the material and the hardness number
depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds,
the harder the material, the higher the rebound.
Advantages of this method are portability and nonmarking of the test surface.

Scleroscope Hardness Test

Heat Treatment

Definition of Heat Treatment


A combination of heating and cooling
operations, timed and applied to a metal or
alloy in the solid state in a way that will
produce desired properties.

Heat Treatment
Heat treatment processes are used to change the
properties or conditions of the material:

Improves the toughness


Increases the hardness
Increases the ductility
Improves the machinability
Refines the grain structure
Removes the residual stresses
Improves the wear resistance

Phases of Fe Fe3C
Ferrite
Austenite
Delta Ferrite
Cementite

Austenite
This is the face centered cubic structure of
steel (Gamma Iron). It is a solid stage
structure stable only at high temperatures
(910C - 1400C).
Can dissolve up to 2% Carbon due to the
larger interstitial openings between the
atoms

Austenite

Ferrite
This is a body centered cubic structure of
steel. (Alpha Iron).
It is a solid stage structure stable at room
temperature can only accommodate
0.008% Carbon at room temperature and
0.025% Carbon at 723C due to the small
interstitial openings

Ferrite

Cementite
This is a crystalline compound of iron and
carbon (Fe3C) with an orthorhombic
crystal structure. It contains 6.67%C by
weight.

Transformation Products
Pearlite
Martensite
Bainite

Pearlite
Cementite and Ferrite
join in a lamellar form
to produce Pearlite.

Normally results from


the transformation of
Austenite during slow
cooling.

Martensite
This structure is
obtained when
Austenite is fast
cooled and thus
transforms to body
centered tetragonal.

Bainite
Austenite decomposes
to form Ferrite and
Carbide. Forms in the
temperature region
between where
Martensite and Pearlite
forms

Heat Treatment
Annealing
Normalizing
Stress Relieving
Hardening and Tempering

Annealing
Conventional Annealing is the process of slowly raising the
temperature about 50 C above the Austenitic temperature line A3
or line ACM in the case of Hypoeutectoid steels (steels with < 0.77%
Carbon) and 50 C into the Austenite-Cementite region in the case
of Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.77% Carbon).
Holding at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material to
transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case may be.
It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 C/hr in a furnace.
The grain structure consist of coarse Pearlite with Ferrite or
Cementite (depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid).
The steel becomes soft and ductile when annealed.

Annealing

Process Annealing
Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened
parts made out of low-Carbon steels (< 0.25% Carbon).
This allows the parts to be soft enough to undergo
further cold working without fracturing.
Process annealing is done by raising the temperature to
just below the Ferrite-Austenite region, line A1on the
diagram. This temperature is about 727 C so heating it
to about 700 C should suffice. This is held long enough
to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase, and then
cooled in still air.
Since the material stays in the same phase through out
the process, the only change that occurs is the size,
shape and distribution of the grain structure.

Spheroidization
Spheroidization is an annealing process used for high carbon
steels (Carbon > 0.6%).
1.Heat to a temperature just below the Ferrite-Austenite line, line A1
or below the Austenite-Cementite line, essentially below the 727 C
line. Hold the temperature for a prolonged time and follow by fairly
slow cooling.

2.Cycle multiple times between temperatures slightly above and


slightly below the 727 C line, say for example between 700 and
750 C and slow cool.
For tool and alloy steels heat to 750 to 800 C and hold for several
hours followed by slow cooling.
All these methods result in a structure in which all the Cementite is
in the form of small globules (spheroids) dispersed throughout the
ferrite matrix. This structure allows for improved machining in
continuous cutting operations such as lathes and screw machines.
Spheroidization also improves resistance to abrasion.

Annealing

Normalizing
Heating of steel to temperature above the
upper critical line (A3 or Acm) and cooling
in still air to room temperature.
Grain refinement
Alleviate chemical segregation
Steel is harder and stronger than when
annealed

Normalizing

Stress Relieving
Stress relieving is done by subjecting the parts to a
temperature of about 75 C below the transformation
temperature, line A1 on the diagram, which is about
727 C of steel.

Thus stress relieving is done at about 650 C for about


one hour or till the whole part reaches the temperature.
Alloy steels are stress relieved at higher temperatures.
After removing from the furnace, the parts are air cooled
in still air.

Hardening
Heat to Austenite region
Fast cooling Quench in oil or water
Austenite transforms to Martensite

Tempering
Tempering is a process done subsequent to quench
hardening. Quench-hardened parts are often too brittle.
This brittleness is caused by a predominance of
Martensite. This brittleness is removed by tempering.
Tempering results in a desired combination of hardness,
ductility, toughness, strength, and structural stability.
The mechanism of tempering depends on the steel and
the tempering temperature. The prevalent Martensite is a
somewhat unstable structure. When heated, the Carbon
atoms diffuse from Martensite to form a carbide
precipitate and the concurrent formation of Ferrite and
Cementite, which is the stable form.

Tempering
Heating of the hardened steel to some
temperature below the lower critical
temperature
Relieves stress
Improves ductility and toughness
Reduces hardness and strength

Tempering

Effect of tempering on properties


Reduces UTS
Reduces Yield strength
Improves elongation

Improves reduction of area


Improves ductility

Hardening

Austempering
Austempering is a quenching technique.
The material is quenched above the temperature
where Martensite starts to form.
It is held till at this temperature till the entire part
reaches this temperature. The Austenite
transforms into Bainite. Bainite is tough enough
so that further tempering is not necessary, and
the tendency to crack is severely reduced.

Martempering
Martempering is similar to Austempering except
that the part is slowly cooled through the
martensite transformation region.

The structure is martensite, which needs to


tempered just as much as martensite that is
formed through rapid quenching.

Hardenability
Not Hardness
Relative ease of transforming austenite to
martensite.
Jominy test

Jominy Test

Jominy Test

Surface Heat Treatments


Carburizing
Nitriding
Carbonitriding (Cyaniding)

Flame Hardening
Induction Hardening

Carburizing

Pack Carburizing

Carburizing

Carburizing / Case Hardening


Low carbon steel (%C <0.2)
Hard wear resistant outer layer
Solid media, salt bath or gas
Atmosphere is CO rich

Carburizing / Case Hardening


Temperature = 925 C
Diffusion reaction
Austenite (Fe) + 2CO Carbon enriched
Austenite +CO2
Martensite transformation on cooling

Carburizing / Case Hardening

Nitriding
Ferritic thermo chemical treatment
Al, Cr, Mo
500 - 590C

Diffusion reaction
No transformation on cooling

Nitriding

Nitriding

Nitriding
High surface hardness
High wear strength
High temper resistance
High temperature hardness is good

High fatigue strength

Induction Hardening
Electric coil magnetic field eddy
currents heat material
Localized heating and cooling
%C > 0.25

Induction Hardening

Induction Hardening

Flame Hardening
Heat workpiece with flame and direct
quenching or air cooling
0.3 > %C < 0.6
Stress relieve after quenching

Flame Hardening

Corrosion
Corrosion is nature's method
whereby metals and alloys
return to their un-refined
naturally occurring forms as
ores and minerals. Metals
such as iron, nickel, zinc,
aluminum and copper occur
naturally as oxides as well as
sulfides and carbonates.

Definition of Corrosion
Removal of material
or degradation of the
properties of a metal
by chemical or
electrochemical
processes, or by a
combination of
chemical,
electrochemical and
mechanical
processes.

FOR CORROSION TO OCCUR


THREE REQUIREMENTS MUST BE
MET
The metal needs to be in contact with an electrolyte. Usually the
electrolyte is water but other liquids as well as gases in some
instances may serve as electrolytes as well.
The presence of dissolved substances in the electrolyte is
necessary. These substances can be dissolved gases such as
oxygen, chlorine or bromine gases or dissolved ions such as H+
(hydrogen ion) all of which serve as strong corrosive agents. Pure
distilled water with no dissolved substances will not function as an
electrolyte and metals subjected to it will not corrode.

The presence of a corrosion cell whereby two portions of the metal


surfaces become electrically connected via an electrolyte, salt
bridge etc. A portion of the metal surface then becomes anodic
(corrodes) giving up metal ions and another portion becomes
cathodic, gaining metal ions.

Corrosion Cell

Corrosion

Galvanic Series

Corrosion
Selective leaching
Galvanic corrosion
Pitting corrosion

Intergranular corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking

Selective Leaching

Pitting Corrosion

Intergranular stress corrosion


cracking

Rate of Corrosion Depends on :


Position of material in the electrochemical
series
Concentration of electrolyte
Oxygen content
Acidity
Velocity of the electrolyte
Temperature
Stray electric currents

Elevated Temperature
Steady deterioration occurs when exposed
to high temperature for long periods
Strength and Hardness decrease with
increased temperature
Thermal cycling i.e. mill rolls, continuous
castor rolls

Steel How is it made ?

Modern Steel Making


Two methods of making steel are dominant in modern
steel industries all over the world.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) makes steel from
Blast Furnace iron and small amounts of scrap metal.
Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking (EAF). This is an
electrically heated furnace that makes steel from scrap
metal only.
Unlike the manufacture of iron, steel production is not a
continuous process.

Steel Making

Blast furnace
Iron is produced in
the blast furnace from
ore, coke and
limestone.

Basic Oxygen Steelmaking


1. The BOS vessel is one-fifth filled with steel
scrap. Molten iron is added until the vessel is full.
2. The vessel is then stood upright and a lance is
lowered down into it. The lance blows 99 percent
pure oxygen onto the steel and iron, causing the
temperature to rise to about 1700C. This melts the
scrap, lowers the carbon content of the molten iron
and helps remove unwanted elements.
3. Fluxes (burnt lime or dolomite) are fed into the
vessel to form slag which absorbs impurities of the
steelmaking process. Near the end of the blowing
cycle, which takes about 20 minutes, a temperature
Reading and samples are taken for analysis.
4. The BOS vessel is tilted again and the steel is
poured into a giant ladle. This process is called
tapping the steel. In the ladle furnace, the steel is
further refined by adding alloying materials which
give the steel special properties.
5. After the steel is removed from the BOS vessel,
the slag, filled with impurities, is poured off and
cooled.

Electric Arc Furnace


1.

2.

3.

The furnace is charged with scrap


steel, and iron.
The electrodes are placed in the
furnace and when the power is
applied it produces an arc of electricity
from the electrode to the scrap steel.
The arc is similar to a lightning bolt
striking the ground, and produces 35
million watts of electricity. The energy
from the arc raises the temperature to
1600C, melting the scrap. Sometimes
substances like carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen and fluxes need to
be added to the melt to remove small
amounts of impurity in the scrap.
After about 80 minutes, the molten
steel is tapped into a ladle and
transferred to the ladle furnace. In
the ladle furnace more refining is done
and the steel can be processed to
form alloys in the same way as the
BOS steel.

Processing of Material

Processing of Material

Casting
Rolling
Extrusion
Powder Metallurgy
Pipe and Tube making
Forging
Drawing
Stamping
Pressing

Casting
Liquid steel must be cast into shapes so that it can be
rolled. This can be done by continuous casting machines
that mould the liquid steel into different sized shapes
called slabs, blooms and billets or by individual mould
casting
Some of the advantages of continuous casting compared
to individual moulds are:
More consistent composition and dimension.
Better surface and internal quality.
Higher yield.
Energy savings.
Less labour intensive.

Continuous Casting

Continuous Casting
1) Before casting begins a dummy bar is used to close the bottom of
the mould.
2) A ladle of molten steel is lifted above the casting machine and a
hole in the bottom of the ladle is opened, allowing the liquid steel to
pour into the mould to form the required shape.

3) As the steel's outer surface solidifies in the mould, the dummy bar is
slowly withdrawn through the machine, pulling the steel with it.
4) Water sprays along the machine to cool/solidify the steel.

5) At the end of the machine, the steel is cut to the required length by
gas torches.

Continuous Casting

Mould / Die Casting


What metals can be cast?
Virtually any metal that can be melted can and is
being cast in foundries today.
Cast Iron ;Gray Iron; Ductile Iron; Malleable Iron;
Cast Steel; Carbon & Low Alloy Steel; Stainless
steel
Titanium; Nickel; Cobalt; Manganese; Tin;
Copper; Aluminum; Brass; Bronze; Magnesium;
Zinc

Choosing a Casting Process


Each casting process offers distinct advantages and benefits
when matched with the proper alloy and application. When
reviewing these processes and determining which best suit your
needs, consider the following:

required quality of the casting surface;


required dimensional accuracy of the casting;
number of castings required per order;
type of pattern and corebox equipment needed;
cost of making the mold(s);
how the selected casting process will affect the design of the
casting.

Sand Casting

ADVANTAGES
Least Expensive Casting Process
Castings can be up to Several
Tons
Less Expensive than Machining
Shapes from Bar Stock
Can Cast Intricate Shapes
Can be Used with Most Pourable
Metals and Alloys
DISADVANTAGES
Can Only Cast Basic Part Shape
Castings Require Secondary
Machining
Rough Surface Finish

Sand Casting - Coring

Sand Casting - Mold

Die Casting

ADVANTAGES
Complex shapes possible
Thin wall section possible
High production rates
High dimensional accuracy
Minimum surface treatment prior
to plating
DISADVANTAGES
Castings generally limited to 5 kg
or less
Voids & Porosity is possible in
complex shapes
Expensive machinery & dies
Limited to metals with low melting
points (normally no higher than
copper-based alloys)

Investment Casting

ADVANTAGES
Complex Shapes Possible
Thin Wall Section Possible
High Production Rates
High Dimensional Accuracy
Can be Used With Most Pourable
Metals and Alloys
Minimum Surface Treatment Prior
to Plating
Parts Can be Used "As Cast"
DISADVANTAGES
Castings Generally Limited to 2.5
kg or Less
Expensive Dies for Wax Pattern
Expensive Unit Cost, Labor
Intensive

Casting Defects
Some common casting deficiencies are:

Inclusions
Porosity (blow holes, pinholes)
Cold Cracking
Hot Cracking
Cold Shuts
Surface irregularities
Distortion
Improper composition

Casting Defects
Blister

Hot Tear

Cold Shut

Porosity

Casting Defects
Solidification Cracks

Solidification Cracks

Surface Shrinkage

Surface Shrinkage

Casting Defect
Warped Casting

Rolling
Cast steel is a relatively weak mass of coarse, uneven grains.
Rolling causes this coarse grain structure to re-crystallize into a
much finer grain structure, giving greater toughness, shock
resistance and tensile (stress) strength.
There are two types of rolling - hot and cold. The rolling process
consists of passing the steel between two rolls revolving at the same
speed but in opposite directions. The gap between the rolls is
smaller than the steel being rolled, so that the steel is reduced in
thickness and at the same time lengthened.

One set of rollers is called a stand, and in any one mill there can be
a number of stands. One length of steel can pass through a stand a
number of times so that it is gradually reduced in size and
progressively rolled to the desired shape. A slab 230mm thick can
end up only 1.5mm thick, but many times longer, after the hot rolling
process.

Rolling
Hot Rolling
Before hot rolling, slabs, blooms and billets are heated in
a furnace to about 1200C. This makes it easier to roll
the steel and removes the rough, flaky surface, or scale.

Cold Rolling
Certain types of steel are also cold rolled after hot rolling.
Before cold rolling the steel is cleaned with acid (pickled)
to remove the scale. Cold rolling is carried out at room
temperature and is rolled at very fast speeds using
lubricants to reduce friction. Cold rolling increases
strength, makes steel thinner and produces a bright
smooth surface.

Hot Rolling

Ring Rolling

Cold Rolling

Rolling Defects
Non uniform dimensions
Waviness
Cracking

Inclusions
Laminations

Rolling and Bending

Extrusion

Extrusion

Indirect extrusion
With indirect extrusion the billet is upsetted first in the container. Here a dummy
block locks the container from one side and
from the other side penetrates the die,
which pushes away against a hollow stem,
into the container.
During extrusion process billet and
container move together, so that no
relative motion between billet and container
is registered.

Direct extrusion
This process is the most common
in the industry.
With this process the billet in the
container is upsetted, so that
it assumes the bore diameter of
the container. Afterwards it is
pressed by the stem through the
die.

Here a relative motion is to be


registered between billet and container.

Hydrostatic Extrusion
With hydrostatic extrusion
the billet in the container is
surrounded with fluid media.
The container space is sealed
on the stem and the die side,
so that the penetrating stem
can compress the hydro
static medium without the
stem touching the billet.

Extrusion Profiles

Extrusion Defects
Surface cracks
Longitudinal laminations
Axial hole or funnel
Variation in structure and properties

Advantages of the Powder


Metallurgy Process
Eliminates or minimizes machining by producing parts at, or
close to, final dimensions
Eliminates of minimizes scrap losses by typically using more
than 97% of the starting raw material in the finished part
Permits a wide variety of alloy systems
Produces good surface finishes
Provides materials which may be heat-treated for increased
strength or increased wear resistance
Provides controlled porosity for self-lubrication or filtration
Facilitates manufacture of complex or unique shapes which
would be impractical or impossible with other metalworking
processes
Is suited to moderate- to high-volume component production
requirements
Offers long-term performance reliability in critical applications
Is cost-effective

Tube and Pipe

Tube / Pipe Mill

Closed Die Forging

Open Die Forging

Forging Defects
Surface cracks
Cold shut / fold
Forged in scale
Internal cracks

Drawing

Deep Drawing

Stamping

Pressing

Forming Defects
Cracks
Local thinning and buckling
Dimensional instability
Orange peel

Welding Processes

Welding Processes

Arc welding processes


Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)


Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Ferrous and Nonferrous Base metals
Low Carbon Core Wire
Carbonates, Rutile, Fluorides, Metal alloys,
Cellulose and Silicate Binders

Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Flux Coating Functions
Arc stabilization
Gas shield remove air
Slag protect, support and insulate
Alloying
Deoxiders and fluxing agents
Electrical characteristics

Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Selecting an electrode
Welding Position
Welding current
Joint design and fit-up
Service conditions
Production efficiency

Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Process variables
Amperage
Voltage
OCV
Arc length
Skill level

Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Advantages

Versatile
Many electrode types
All positions
Range of thicknesses

Low start-up cost


Easy to use

Shielded Metal Arc Welding


Disadvantages
Low deposition rate (1 8 kg / hour)
High labour and consumable cost

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding

GMAW Equipment

Gas Metal Arc Welding


Ferrous and Nonferrous base metal
Carbon, alloy steel and nonferrous wire
Gas shield
CO2, Argon, Mixed gas (Ar, O2, H2, He, CO2)

Spray, Globular, Short Circuit Transfer


modes

Spray Transfer

Globular Transfer

Dip / Short Circuit Transfer

Gas Metal Arc Welding


Process Variables

Amperage
Voltage
Travel speed
Electrode extension
Shielding gas

Gas Metal Arc Welding


Gas Selection
AL

Steel
Stainless Steel
Ni, Cu
Ti

Use Ar
T>15mm Use Ar+He
CO2; Ar, Ar+O2+CO2
Ar, Ar +CO2
Ar, Ar+He
Ar

Gas Metal Arc Welding


Advantages
All Positions
Higher deposition rate (0.5 13kg/hour)
Semi automatic

Cost effective process

Gas Metal Arc Welding


Disadvantages
Not as portable as SMAW
Gas shield can be affected by environment
Equipment setting and maintenance more
complex

Flux Cored Arc Welding

Flux Cored Arc Welding

Flux Cored Arc Welding


Similar to GMAW
Cored wire
Gas assisted and Self Shielded wire

Flux Cored Arc Welding


Advantages

Excellent weld appearance and quality


High deposition rate
Easy to use or mechanised
Less pre-cleaning than GMAW

Flux Cored Arc Welding


Disadvantages
Limited to ferrous and nickel base alloys
Slag
More smoke and fumes than GMAW

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding


Solid wire, Cored wire or Strip
Granular Flux shield
Mostly ferrous materials

Submerged Arc Welding (Strip)

Submerged Arc Welding


Advantages
Semi automatic or mechanized
High deposition rate (27 45 kg/hour)

Thick materials single pass


Low fume and UV radiation

Submerged Arc Welding


Disadvantages
High initial capital cost
Flat position only
Fit-up and alignment critical

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding


Non Consumable Tungsten electrode
Inert gas shield (Ar, Ar-He)
AC Arc cleaning of oxide films on Al

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding


Advantages

Excellent quality

Thin and Thick material

All positions

Spatter free

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding


Disadvantages

Low deposition

Expensive equipment

Experienced operator

Oxyfuel Welding

Spot welding (ERW)

Electric resistance welding

Electron Beam Welding

Electron Beam Welding

Plasma Arc Welding

Friction Welding

Stud Welding

Ultrasonic Welding

Electroslag Welding

Explosion Welding

Diffusion Welding

Laser Welding

Brazing and Soldering

Weld Defects

Common Engineering
Materials

Steel Types
Low Carbon Steel ( 0 0.25%C)
Medium Carbon Steel (0.25 0.6%C)
High Carbon Steel (0.60 2.0%C)

Steel Types
Low Alloy Steel
Galvanized Steel

Cast Iron (2.0 6.67%C)


Stainless steels

Low Carbon steel


Relatively soft
Easily deformed and shaped
Nails, Structural shapes, pipe, wire

Low Carbon steel Microstructure

Medium Carbon steel


Can be hardened by quenching
Can be tempered
Higher strength than low carbon steels
Shafts, Axles, machine parts

High Carbon steel


Can be hardened by quenching
Can be tempered
Hammers, Chisels, Drills, Springs

Low Alloy steel


Alloying elements are added to :
Increase hardenability
Increase strength
Improve mechanical properties at high or
low temperature
Increase wear resistance
Increase corrosion resistance
Improve magnetic properties

Low Alloy steel


Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, V
Quenched and Tempered
Increased Strength, Ductility, Fatigue
resistance and Wear resistance
Shafts, Gears, Torsion bars, Pins,
Construction, Transportation

Galvanized Steel
Zn Coated steel

Cast irons
2- 6.67 % Carbon
White cast iron

Malleable cast iron


Grey cast iron
Nodular cast iron

White Cast Iron


All carbon is combined - Cementite
2.5 4.3 %C (Hypoeutectic)
Si < 1.3%

White Cast Iron

White Cast Iron


Hard and wear resistant
Brittle
Difficult to machine
Liners for mixers and mills

Malleable Cast Iron


Carbon is uncombined irregular round
particles
Heat treated white cast iron
2 2.65 %C
0.9 1.4 %Si

Malleable Cast Iron


Axles and differential housings
Crankshafts

Grey Cast Iron


Carbon is uncombined in the form of
graphite flakes
2.5 4.0 %C
1.5 5.0 %Si

Grey Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron


Hardness is determined by microstructure
Gear housings, pump housing
Fire hydrants, sewer covers

Nodular Cast Iron


Ductile or SG iron
Carbon / Graphite - spheroids
Ductile

Motor frames, cylinder heads, crankshafts,


pistons, mill rolls

Nodular Cast Iron

Stainless steels
Ferritic
Martensitic
Austenitic

Duplex
Precipitation hardening

Ferritic Stainless Steel


14 27% Cr Low C
Magnetic
Cannot be hardened by heat treatment

441, 430, 409


Cold form easily

Ferritic Stainless Steel


Brittle
Poor weldability
Grain growth
Grain boundary embrittlement

Nitric acid tanks, furnace parts, annealing


baskets, decorative

Austenitic Stainless Steel


18/8 types
18 25 %Cr, 8-14% Ni, 0-3%Mo
Non Magnetic
Cannot be hardened by heat treatment

Austenitic Stainless Steel

Austenitic Stainless Steel


Cold worked work hardens
304, 308, 316, 310

Shock resistant,
Good weldability
Pulp handling, boiler shells, food and chemical
handling, heat treatment equipment

Martensitic Stainless Steel


0.15 1.2%C , 1.5 18 %Cr
410,420,431
Magnetic
Can be hardenable by heat treatment

Martensitic Stainless Steel


Poor weldability
Controlled pre / post heating
Turbine, pump shafts, cutlery, surgical
instruments, valves

Duplex Stainless Steel


0.03 0.06 %C, 19 28 %Cr, 1 8 %Ni,
0.5 4 % Mo, 0.1 0.35 %N, 0.05 2.5
%Cu
2205, 2507

Ferrite and austenite microstructure

Duplex Stainless Steel

Duplex Stainless Steel


Improved intergranular, and pitting
corrosion resistance
Improved stress corrosion cracking
resistance

Chemical processing, Oil and Gas industry

Precipitation Hardening Stainless


Steel
17-4 PH, 17-7 PH
15-17 % Cr, 4 10 %Ni, Cu, Al
Tempered Martensite with age hardened
precipitates
Pumps, rocket casings
No preheat but post weld heat treatment to
restore properties

Aluminium
Four-digit number Alloying element(s)
1XXX

aluminium of 99% minimum purity

2XXX

aluminium-copper alloys

3XXX

aluminium-manganese alloys

4XXX

aluminium-silicon alloys

5XXX

aluminium-magnesium alloys

6XXX

aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys

7XXX

aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys

8XXX

miscellaneous, e.g. Aluminium-lithium alloys

Nickel
Solid solution alloys
Solid solution alloys are pure nickel, Ni-Cu
alloys and the simpler Fe-Ni-Cr alloys
Precipitation hardening alloys
Precipitation hardening alloys include NiCu-Al-Ti, Ni-Cr-Al-Ti and Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb-AlTi.

Nickel

Copper

High electrical and thermal conductivity


Corrosion resistant
Non magnetic
Easy to process

Copper Alloys

Brass
Bronze
Cupronickel
Nickel Silver (Cu,Ni,Zn)

Properties of Brass

Good Strength
Excellent Machinability
Corrosion Resistance
Good conductivity
Thermal
Electrical

Wear resistance
Non-sparking
Attractive colour
Readily recycled

Properties of Bronzes

High strength
High toughness
Corrosion resistant
Low coefficient of friction

Properties of Cupronickels
Cannot be heat treated cold work only
High resistance to corrosion fatigue
Corrosion resistant

Plastic

Plastic
All plastics are polymers, but not all polymers
are plastics.
Monomer = the subunit that is repeated many
times
Polymer = the collection of subunits
The choice of monomer and the combinations of
different monomers determines the properties of
the material.

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