Research Process, Research Design

and Questionnaires

RESEARCH PROCESS
Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice

Hypotheses / Conceptualization

Research Design

Data collection
In this workshop we
talk about all of the
steps in the research
process except Data
Analysis and Findings.

Data Analysis

Findings

RESEARCH PROCESS Research Problem

What is a problem?
. . . any situation where a gap exists between the
actual and the desired state.
A problem does not necessarily mean that something
is seriously wrong. It could simply indicate an interest
in improving an existing situation. Thus, problem
definitions can include both existing problems in the
current situation as well as the quest for idealistic
states in the future.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification

How are problems identified?

1. Observation manager/researcher senses that changes
are occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes,
feelings, communication patterns, etc., are surfacing in
ones environment. The manager may not understand
exactly what is happening, but can definitely sense that
things are not what they should be.

2. Preliminary Data Collection use of interviews, both

unstructured and structured, to get an idea or feel for
what is happening in the situation.
3. Literature Survey a comprehensive review of the
published and unpublished work from secondary sources
of data in the areas related to the problem.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification

A literature survey ensures that:

1. Important variables likely to influence the problem are
not left out of the study.
2. A clearer idea emerges regarding what variables are
most important to consider, why they are important, and
how they should be investigated.
3. The problem is more accurately and precisely defined.
4. The interviews cover all important topics.
5. The research hypotheses are testable.
6. The research can be replicated.
7. One does not reinvent the wheel; that is, time is not
wasted trying to rediscover something that is already
known.
8. The problem to be investigated is perceived by the
scientific community as relevant and significant.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification

Typical Business Research Problems:
1.
2.
3.

Training programs are not as effective as anticipated.

Sales volume of products/services is not increasing.
Balancing of accounting ledgers is becoming increasingly
difficult.
4. The newly installed information system is not being used by
the employees for whom it was designed.
5. Introduction of flexible work hours has created more
problems than it has solved.
6. Anticipated results of a recent merger/acquisition have not
been realized.
7. Inventory control systems are not effective.
8. Frequent interruptions in production.
9. Low employee morale.
10. Frequent customer complaints.
11. Installation of an MIS keeps getting delayed.
12. Ad campaign is not generating new sales prospects.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification

What are some business problems

you are aware of or have confronted?

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Definition

Problem Definition Steps:

Understand and define the complete problem. If more

than one problem is identified, separate and prioritize

them in terms of who and when they will be dealt with.
Identify and separate out measurable symptoms to
determine root problem versus easily observable
symptoms. For example, a manager may identify
declining sales or lost market share as the problem, but
the real problem may be bad advertising, low salesperson
morale, or ineffective distribution. Similarly, low
productivity may be a symptom of employee morale or
motivation problems, or supervisor issues.
Determine the unit of analysis = individuals, households,
businesses, objects (e.g., products, stores), geographic
areas, etc., or some combination.
Determine the relevant variables, including specifying
independent and dependent relationships, constructs, etc.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Definition

Examples of Well-Defined problems:
1. Has the new packaging affected the sales of the product?
2. How do price and quality rate on consumers evaluation of products?
3. Is the effect of participative budgeting on performance moderated by
control systems?
4. Does better automation lead to greater asset investment per dollar of
output?
5. Has the new advertising message resulted in higher recall?
6. To what extent do the organizational structure and type of information
systems account for the variance in the perceived effectiveness of
managerial decision-making?
7. Will expansion of international operations result in an improvement in
the firms image and value?
8. What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patterns
of companies?
9. What are the components of quality of life?
10.What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data
warehouse for a manufacturing company?

RESEARCH PROCESS Definitions

Variable = the observable and measurable characteristics/attributes the
researcher specifies, studies, and draws conclusions about.

Types of Variables:

Independent variable = also called a predictor variable, it is a variable or

construct that influences or explains the dependent variable either in a positive

or negative way.

Dependent variable = also known as a criterion variable, it is a variable or

construct the researcher hopes to understand, explain and/or predict.

Moderator variable = a variable that has an effect on the independent

dependent variable relationship. The presence of a moderator variable modifies

the original relationship between the independent and dependent variables by
interacting with the independent variable to influence the strength of the
relationship with the dependent variable.

Mediating variable = also known as an intervening variable, it is a variable

that surfaces as a function of the independent variable and explains the

relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Moderator
variables specify when certain effects will occur whereas mediators speak to
how or why such effects occur. Moreover, mediators explain how external
events take on internal psychological significance.

RESEARCH PROCESS Definitions continued . . .

Measurement = is the process of determining the direction and intensity of

feelings about persons, events, concepts, ideas, and/or objects of interest
that are defined as being part of the business problem. As part of
measurement, researchers use predetermined rules to assign numbers or
labels to: (1) individuals attitudes, behaviors, characteristics, etc.; (2)
objects features or attributes; and (3) any other phenomenon or event
being investigated. Rules tell researchers how to assign numbers or labels;
e.g., assign the numbers 1 to 7 to responses based on the intensity of an
individuals feelings, beliefs, etc.

Measurement involves two processes: (1) identification/development of

constructs; and (2) scale measurement. The first process involves
identifying and defining what is to be measured, while the second process
involves selecting the scale to measure the construct(s).
Construct = also referred to as a concept, it is a abstract idea formed in the
mind based on a set of facts or observations. The idea is a combination of a
number of similar characteristics of the construct. Examples of constructs
include: brand awareness, brand familiarity, purchase intentions,
satisfaction, importance, trust, service quality, role ambiguity, etc.
Scale measurement = using a set of symbols or numbers to represent the
range of possible responses to a research question.

RESEARCH PROCESS Constructs

Examples of Constructs Investigated in Marketing:

Constructs
Brand Awareness

Brand Attitudes

Purchase Intentions

Importance of Factors
Psychographics

Satisfaction

Operational Description
Percentage of respondents that have heard of a
designated brand; awareness could be either
unaided or aided.
The number of respondents and their intensity of
feeling positive or negative toward a specific brand.
The number of people planning to buy the
specified object (e.g., product or service) within
a designated time period.
To what extent do specific factors influence
a person's purchase choice.
The attitudes, opinions, interests and
lifestyle characteristics of individuals
providing the information.
How people evaluate their post-purchase
consumption experience with a particular
product, service or company.

Role Ambiguity Construct

Conceptual/theoretical definition = the difference between the information
available to the person (actual knowledge) and that which is required for
adequate performance of a role.
Operational definition = the amount of uncertainty an individual feels
regarding job role responsibilities and expectations from supervisors,
other employees and customers.
Measurement scale = consists of 45 items assessed using a 5-point scale,
with category labels 1 = very certain, 2 = certain, 3 = neutral, 4 =
uncertain, and 5 = very uncertain.
Examples of items:
How much freedom of action I am expected to have.
How I am expected to handle non-routine activities on the job.
The sheer amount of work I am expected to do.
To what extent my boss is open to hearing my point of view.
How satisfied my boss is with me.
How I am expected to interact with my customers.
Source: Singh & Rhoads,
JMR, August 1991, p. 328.

Service Quality Construct

Conceptual/theoretical definition = the difference between an individuals
expectations of service and their actual experiences.
Operational definition = how individuals react to their actual service
experience with a company relative to their expectations that a
company will possess certain service characteristics.
Measurement scale = consists of 82 items assessed using a 7-point scale,
with category labels 1 = not at all essential to 7 = absolutely essential.
Examples of items:
Employees of excellent companies will give prompt service to customers.
Excellent companies will have the customers best interests at heart.
Excellent companies will perform services right the first time.
Employees of excellent companies will never be too busy to respond to
customer requests.
Excellent companies will give customers individual attention.
Materials associated with products and services of excellent companies
(such as pamphlets or statements) will be visually appealing .
Source: Parasuraman, Zeithaml &
Berry, JM, Fall 1985, p. 44.

RESEARCH PROCESS
Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice

Hypotheses / Conceptualization

Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings

RESEARCH PROCESS Theory/Practice

What is theory ??

RESEARCH PROCESS Theory/Practice

Theory = a systematic set of relationships

providing a consistent and comprehensive explanation
of a phenomenon. In practice, a theory is a
researchers attempt to specify the entire set of
dependence relationships explaining a particular set
of outcomes.

Theory is based on prior empirical research, past

experiences and observations of behavior, attitudes,
or other phenomena, and other theories that provide a
perspective for developing possible relationships.
Theory is used to prepare a theoretical framework
for the research.

RESEARCH PROCESS
Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice

Hypotheses / Conceptualization

Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings

RESEARCH PROCESS Hypotheses

Hypotheses = preconceptions the researcher

develops regarding the relationships represented
in the data, typically based on theory, practice or
previous research.
Examples:
The average number of cups of coffee students drink
during finals will be greater than the average they
consume at other times.
Younger, part-time employees of Samouels restaurant
are more likely to search for a new job.

RESEARCH PROCESS Theoretical Framework

Theoretical Framework = a written description

that includes a conceptual model. It integrates all
the information about the problem in a logical
manner, describes the relationships among the
variables, explains the theory underlying these
relationships, and indicates the nature and direction
of the relationships.
The process of developing a theoretical
framework involves conceptualization which is a
visual specification (conceptual model) of the
theoretical basis of the relationships you would like
to examine.

RESEARCH PROCESS Theory/Practice

Basic Features of a Good Theoretical Framework:

1. The variables/constructs considered relevant to the study are
clearly identified and labeled.
2. The discussion states how the variables/constructs are
related to each other, e.g., dependent, independent,
moderator, etc.
3. If possible, the nature (positive or negative) of the
relationships as well as the direction is hypothesized on the
basis of theory, previous research or researcher judgment.
4. There is a clear explanation of why you expect these
relationships to exist.
5. A visual (schematic) diagram of the theoretical framework is
prepared to clearly illustrate the hypothesized relationships.

RESEARCH PROCESS Conceptual Models

Purchase
Likelihood

Price

Independent

Dependent

Variable

Variable

Moderator Variable

Discount Level
Restrictions

Price

Purchase
Likelihood

Independent

Dependent

Variable

Variable

RESEARCH PROCESS Conceptual Models

Mediator Variable
(full mediation)

Price

Perceived
Value

Purchase
Likelihood

Mediator Variable
(partial mediation)
Perceived
Value

Price

Purchase
Likelihood

Independent

Dependent

Variable

Variable

Theoretical Framework Conceptualization

Group Exercise: Use the Samouels and Ginos

restaurant database variables to develop a
theoretical framework/conceptual model of the
relationships that could be examined. Consider
and evaluate several models, but be prepared to
report your most interesting or thought
provoking model.

Conceptual Models Samouels Employee Database

Supervision

Work Groups

Employee
Commitment

Compensation
Supervision

Work Groups

Intention to
Search

Compensation

Potential Hypotheses:
Commitment is positively related to supervision, work groups and compensation.
Intention to Search is negatively related to supervision, work groups & compensation.

Description of Customer Survey Variables

Variable Description
Restaurant Perceptions
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
X9
X10
X11
X12

Excellent Food Quality

Attractive Interior
Generous Portions
Excellent Food Taste
Good Value for the Money
Friendly Employees
Appears Clean & Neat
Fun Place to Go
Wide Variety of menu Items
Reasonable Prices
Courteous Employees
Competent Employees

Variable Type
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric
Metric

Selection Factor Rankings

X13
X14
X15
X16

Food Quality
Atmosphere
Prices
Employees

Nonmetric
Nonmetric
Nonmetric
Nonmetric

Relationship Variables
X17
X18
X19
X20
X21

Satisfaction
Likely to Return in Future
Recommend to Friend
Frequency of Patronage
Length of Time a Customer

Metric
Metric
Metric
Nonmetric
Nonmetric

Classification Variables
X22
X23
X24
X25
X26
X27
X28

Gender
Age
Income
Competitor
Which AD Viewed (#1, 2 or 3)
AD Rating
Respondents that Viewed Ads

Nonmetric
Nonmetric
Nonmetric
Nonmetric
Nonmetric
Metric
Nonmetric

Description of Employee Survey Variables

Variable Description
Variable Type
Work Environment Measures
X1
I am paid fairly for the work I do.
Metric
X2
I am doing the kind of work I want.
Metric
X3
My supervisor gives credit an praise for work well done.
Metric
X4
There is a lot of cooperation among the members of my work group.
Metric
X5
My job allows me to learn new skills.
Metric
X6
My supervisor recognizes my potential.
Metric
X7
My work gives me a sense of accomplishment.
Metric
X8
My immediate work group functions as a team.
Metric
X9
My pay reflects the effort I put into doing my work.
Metric
X10
My supervisor is friendly and helpful.
Metric
X11
The members of my work group have the skills and/or training
to do their job well.
Metric
X12
The benefits I receive are reasonable.
Metric
Relationship Measures
X13
Loyalty I have a sense of loyalty to Samouels restaurant.
Metric
X14
Effort I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that
expected to help Samouels restaurant to be successful.
Metric
X15
Proud I am proud to tell others that I work for Samouels restaurant.
Metric
Classification Variables
X16
Intention to Search
Metric
X17
Length of Time an Employee
Nonmetric
X18
Work Type = Part-Time vs. Full-Time
Nonmetric
X19
Gender
Nonmetric
X20
Age
Nonmetric
X21
Performance
Metric

RESEARCH PROCESS
Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice

Hypotheses / Conceptualization

Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings

RESEARCH DESIGN Types

Research Design Alternatives Purpose:

(1)

Exploratory to formulate the problem, develop

hypotheses, identify constructs, establish priorities
for research, refine ideas, clarify concepts, etc.

(2)

Descriptive to describe characteristics of certain

groups, estimate proportion of people in a population
who behave in a given way, and to make directional
predictions.

(3)

Causal to provide evidence of the relationships

between variables, the sequence in which events
occur, and/or to eliminate other possible explanations.

Research Design Approaches

Two Broad Approaches:

1. Qualitative.
2. Quantitative.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Role of Qualitative Research:
Search of academic, trade and professional

literature (both traditional & Internet).

Use of interviews, brainstorming, focus groups.
Internalization of how others have undertaken
both qualitative and quantitative research.
Use of existing questionnaires/constructs.

Outcome of Qualitative Research:

Improve conceptualization.
Clarify research design, including data collection

approach.
Draft questionnaire.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Role of Quantitative Research:

Quantify data and generalize results from

sample to population.
Facilitates examination of large number of
representative cases.
Structured approach to data collection.
Enables extensive statistical analysis.

Outcome of Quantitative Research:

Validation of qualitative research findings.
Confirmation of hypotheses, theories, etc.
Recommend final course of action.

RESEARCH PROCESS
Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice

Hypotheses / Conceptualization

Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings

DATA COLLECTION

Approaches:
Observation

Human
Mechanical/Electronic Devices
Surveys

Self-Completion
Mail/Overnight Delivery/Fax
Electronic
Interviewer-Administered
Face-to-Face Home, Work, Mall, Focus Groups
Telephone

DATA COLLECTION

Selection of data collection approach?

Budget
Knowledge of issues qualitative vs. quantitative
Respondent Participation
Taste Test; Ad Test
Card Sorts; Visual Scaling
Time Available

DATA COLLECTION

Types of Data:

Primary
Secondary

PRIMARY DATA

Primary Data Sources:

Informal discussions; brainstorming

Focus groups
Observational Methods
Structured & Unstructured Surveys
Experiments

Primary Data Focus Groups

Focus Groups = bring a small group of people (10-12)

together for an interactive, spontaneous discussion of a
particular topic or concept. Discussion is led by a trained
moderator and usually lasts 1 hours.
Typical Objectives:
To identify and define problems.
To generate new ideas about products, services, delivery
methods, etc.
To test advertising themes, positioning statements, company
and product names, etc.
To discover new constructs and measurement methods.
To understand customer needs, wants, attitudes, behaviors,
preferences and motives.

Primary Data

Factors Influencing Overall Mobile Phone Satisfaction

2003 2002
These factors
typically are
identified in
qualitative
focus groups
(exploratory
research).

Features
Durability
Physical Design
Battery Function
Operation

27%
23%
19%
16%
15%

21%
16%
28%
16%
19%

2004 Wireless Retail Sales Satisfaction Study

Sales Staff
44%
Price/Promotion
28%
Store Display
14%
Store Facility
14%
Source: J.D. Power and Associates, 2002, 2003 & 2004.

These percentages
typically are determined
in quantitative surveys
(descriptive research).

Primary Data

Hotel Selection Factors:

1. Location
2. Past Experience
3. Recommendations or Friends and Family
4. Brand Reputation

Guest Satisfaction Factors:

1. Guest Room
2. Departure Process
3. Pre-Arrival/Arrival Experiences
4. Hotel Services
5. Food & Beverage services
Note: the first three factors account for more than 70 percent
of guest satisfaction ratings.
Source: J.D. Power & Associates, August 21, 2001.

Primary Data

What is the construct

in this study?

Original Equipment Tire Satisfaction Study:

1. Product Quality
- Number of tires with a problem
- Number of problems experienced
- Number of original tires replaced
2. Long-Term Performance
- Wear ability
- Length of warranty
- Overall reliability & dependability
- Freedom from pull to left or right
3. Situational Performance
- Traction on wet roads
- Traction at fast starts
- Holds road well in emergencies
- Lack of vibration at highway speeds
- Overall safety
- Overall ride at highway speeds
4. Design
- Road quietness
- Style & appearance of sidewalls
- Tread design
- Size of tire matches size of vehicle
5. Winter Traction
Source: J.D. Power & Associates, August 27, 2001.

39%

22%

19%

14%

5%

PRIMARY DATA Focus Groups

Focus Groups:

Some of my best experiences?

Some of my worst experiences?

PRIMARY DATA Observations

CONSIDERATIONS:

Methods human/mechanical/electronic.
Useful where respondent cannot or will not
articulate the answer.

Cannot be used to measure thoughts, feelings,

attitudes, opinions, etc.

PRIMARY DATA QUESTIONNAIRES

Purpose of Questionnaires:
To obtain information that cannot be easily

observed or is not already available in

written or electronic form.

Questionnaires enable researchers to measure

concepts/constructs.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Steps in Questionnaire Design:
1. Initial Considerations problem, objectives,
target population, sampling, etc.
2. Clarification of Concepts select variables,
constructs, measurement approach, etc.
3. Developing the Questionnaire

Length and sequence.

Types of questions.
Sources of questions.

Wording, coding, layout and instructions.

4. Pre-testing the Questionnaire.

5. Questionnaire Administration Planning.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Two Types of Questions:

1. Open-ended
2. Closed-ended

Open-ended Questions = place no constraints on

respondents; i.e., they are free to answer in their own
words and to give whatever thoughts come to mind.
Closed-ended Questions = respondent is given the
option of choosing from a number of predetermined
answers.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Examples of Open-ended Questions:

How do you typically decide which restaurant you will
eat at?

Which mutual funds have you been investing in for the

past year?

How are your investment funds performing?

Do you think airport security is better now than it

was six months ago?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Open-ended Questions

Typically used in exploratory/qualitative studies.

Typically used in personal interview surveys involving

small samples.
Allows respondent freedom of response.
Respondent must be articulate and willing to spend time
giving a full answer.
Data is in narrative form which can be time consuming and
difficult to code and analyze.
Possible researcher bias in interpretation.
Narrative is analyzed using of content analysis. Software
is available (e.g., NUD*IST).

Content Analysis Software:

TextSmart is a software package that enables users to view,
manipulate and automate the coding or categorization of responses to
narative data. The ability to automate the examination and
organization of narrative data is particularly helpful when a large
scale survey is undertaken. It can be used to analyze any textual data,
and its output can be exported to SPSS for further analysis. For
example, you can do correspondence analysis* on a contingency table
from a TextSmart analysis. For more information about TextSmart and
related SPSS products visit the WWW site www.spss.com.

QSR NUD*IST stands for Non-Numerical Unstructured Data

Indexing and Theorizing. It is a popular computer software package
used by researchers to analyze text from focus group or interview
transcripts, literary documents and so on. It examines non-textual
data such as photographs, tape recordings, films and so on. Users can
us it to index and link several documents in a structured way to
produce categorical data in a form amenable to further analysis.
NUD*IST output can be exported to software programs such as SPSS
and Excel. For more information about QSR NUD*IST and its related
product NVIVO visit their website
(http://www.scolari.co.uk/qsr/qsr_n4.htm).

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Closed-end Questions:

Single Answer
Multiple Answer
Rank Order
Numeric
Likert-Type Scales
Semantic Differential

Examples of Closed-end Questions:

1.
2.
3.

Did you check your email this morning? __ Yes __ No

4.

Which countries in Europe have you traveled to in the last six months?
__ Belgium
__ Germany
__ France
__ Holland
__ Italy
__ Switzerland
__ Spain
__ Other (please specify) _____________

5.

How often do you eat at Samouels Greek Cuisine restaurant?

__ Never
__ 1 4 times per year
__ 5 8 times per year
__ 9 12 times per year
__ More than 12 times per year

Do you believe Enron senior executives should be put in jail? __ Yes __ No

Should the U.K. adopt the Euro or keep the Pound?
__ Adopt the Euro
__ Keep the Pound

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Closed-end Questions

Typically used in quantitative studies.

Assumption is researcher has knowledge to pre-specify

response categories.
Data can be pre-coded and therefore in a form amenable
for use with statistical packages (e.g., SPSS, SAS)
data capture therefore easier.
More difficult to design but simplifies analysis.
Used in studies involving large samples.
Limited range of response options.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Broad Considerations

Sequencing of questions.
Identification of concepts.
How many questions are required to capture

each concept.
Question wording.
Overall length of questionnaire.
Placing of sensitive questions.
Ability of respondents.
Level of measurement.
Open-ended versus closed-end questions.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Questionnaire Sequence
Opening Questions
Research Topic Questions
Classification Questions

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Opening Questions

Screening or Filter Questions:

. . . are used to ensure respondents included in the
study are those that meet the pre-determined criteria
of the target population.

Tonight we are talking with individuals who are 18

years of age or older and have 50 percent or more of
the responsibility for banking decisions in your
household. Are you that person? __ Yes __ No

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Opening Questions

Rapport Questions:
. . . are used to establish rapport with the respondent
by gaining their attention and stimulating their interest
in the topic.

Have you seen any good movies in the last month?

__ Yes __ No

What is your favorite seafood restaurant?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Research Topic Questions
Concept/construct = an abstract idea formed in the mind. The idea
is a combination of a number of similar characteristics/variables that
collectively define the concept and are used to measure it. Constructs
are abstract/intangible and cannot be directly observed or measured
because they are the mental images a person attaches to an object,
such as attitudes, feelings, perceptions, expectations, or expressions
of future actions (e.g., purchase intentions).
Example Concept:

Customer Service issues for

a B-to-B situation

Reliable delivery
Technical sales Support
Inside sales representatives
Field sales representatives
Complaint resolution
Ordering/Invoicing
Website design

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Concepts
Concept Identification
Conceptual definition e.g., Service Quality.
As perceived by customers, it is the difference
between customers expectations or desires
of a vendor and their perceptions of the actual
situation (their experiences).

Working Definition for Concept

Decompose definition into components.
Search for items that are measurable.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Service Quality Construct:

Research has shown the service quality construct can be indirectly
represented by the following measurable components:

The service providers ability to . . . .

communicate and listen to consumers;

sincerely empathize with customers in interpreting their needs
and wants;

be tactful in responding to customers questions, objections, and

problems;

create an impression of reliability in performing services;

create an image of credibility by keeping promises;
demonstrate sufficient technical knowledge and competence;

exhibit strong interpersonal skills in dealing with customers.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Concept Development Exercise:

Concept = Restaurant Service Quality
1. What are the components of service quality as
they relate to a restaurant?
2. How do you measure these components?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Preparing Good Questions:

Use Simple Words.

Be brief.
Avoid Ambiguity.
Avoid Leading Questions.
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions.
Check Questionnaire Layout.
Prepare Clear Instructions.
Watch Question Sequence.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Recently a survey was conducted by the United Nations using a

sample from several different countries.
The question asked
was:
" Would you please give your opinion about the food shortage in
the rest of the world?"
The survey was a huge failure. Why?

In Africa they did not know what 'food' meant.

In Western Europe, they did not know what 'shortage' meant.
In Eastern Europe they did not know what 'opinion' meant.
In South America they did not know what 'please' meant.
And in the U.S., they did not know what 'the rest of the
world' meant.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Avoid Position Bias:
Position Bias:
How important are flexible hours in evaluating
job alternatives?
What factors are important in evaluating
job alternatives?
No Position Bias:
What factors are important in evaluating
job alternatives?
How important are flexible hours in evaluating
job alternatives?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Double-Barreled Questions:
To what extent do you agree or disagree with the
following statements?

Harrods employees are friendly and helpful.

Harrods employees are courteous and knowledgeable.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Branching Questions:
. . . are used to direct respondents to answer the right
questions as well as questions in the proper sequence.

Have you seen or heard any advertisements for wireless

telephone service in the past 30 days?

If No, go to question #10.
If Yes , were the advertisements on radio or TV or both?
If the advertisements were on TV or on both radio and
TV, then go to question #6?
If the advertisements were on radio, then go to
question #8.

Following questions #6 and #8 the next question would be:

Were any of the advertisements for Sprint PCS?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Issues Self-Completion Instructions:

Introducing and explaining how to answer a series of

questions on a particular topic.

Transition statements from one section (topic) of the
questionnaire to another.
Which question to go to next (branching or skipping).
How many answers are acceptable, e.g., Check only
one response or Check as many as apply.
Whether respondents are supposed to answer the
question by themselves, or can consult another
person or reference materials.
What to do when the questionnaire is completed, e.g.,
When finished, place this in the postage paid
envelope and mail it.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Issues Interviewer-Assisted Instructions:

How to increase respondent participation.

How to screen out respondents that are not wanted and

still keep them happy.

What to say when respondents ask how to answer a
particular question.
When concepts may not be easily understood, how to
define them.
When answer alternatives are to be read to respondents
(aided response) or not to be read (unaided response).
How to follow branching or skip patterns.
When and how to probe.
How to end the interview.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Identify response bias for below questions:
1.

Do you advocate a lower speed limit to save human lives?

2.

When you visited the museum, how many times did you read the
plaques that explain what the exhibit contained?

3.

About what time do you ordinarily eat dinner?

4.

How important is it for stores to carry a large variety of different

brands of this product?

5.

Would you favor increasing taxes to cope with the current fiscal
crisis?

6.

Dont you see some danger in the new policy?

7.

What small appliance, such as countertop appliances, have you

purchased in the past month?

8.

When you buy fast food, what percentage of the time do you
order each of the following types of food?

9.

Do you like orange juice?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Comments on Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.

A loaded question because everyone wants to save lives. Also, it

presumes that lower speed limits saves lives.
Too specific because respondents likely cannot remember the
exact number of times.
Ambiguous because dont know if dinner is lunch or evening.
Not specific enough about types of stores.
Overemphasis because refers to crisis.
Leading question because uses danger in sentence.
Answers likely to relate only to countertop appliances and not all
small appliances.
Over generalization because does not specify time period.
Ambiguous because may like orange juice for themselves, or for
their kids, but really do not know.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Pre-testing Questionnaires:

Objective: to identify possible shortcomings of questionnaire.

Approaches informal or formal.
Can assess:

clarity of instructions
cover letter
clarity of questions
adequacy of codes and
categories for pre-coded
questions
quality of responses
likely response rate

No hard and fast rules.

ability to perform meaningful

analyses
time to complete the
questionnaire
cost of data collection
which questions are relevant
whether key questions have
been overlooked
sources of bias

Scale Development

Scales = the approach used to measure

concepts (constructs).
Two Options:
1. Use published scales.
2. Develop original scales.

Sources of Published Scales

Organizational Behavior and Management
Price, James L., Handbook of Organizational Measurement, International Journal of
Manpower, Vol. 18, Number 4/5/6, 1997, ISSN 0143-7720, www.mcb.co.uk
Has 28 chapters with constructs measuring organizational behavior.
Management Information Systems (MIS)
www.ucalgary.ca/~newsted/surveys.html.
www.misq.org/archivist/home.html.

Marketing
Bearden, William O. and Richard Netemeyer, Handbook of Marketing Scales, Sage
Publications, 2nd ed., 1998. Summarizes over 130 marketing related scales.
Bruner, Gordon Paul Hensel, Marketing Scales Handbook, Chicago, Ill., American
Marketing Association, 1992. Includes almost 600 scales.
General
Robinson, John P., Phillip R. Shaver and Lawrence S. Wrightsman, Measures of
Personal and Social Psychological Attitudes, San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1991.
Contains over 150 published scales in 11 different areas.
Buros Institute of Mental Measurements website has reviews of published tests
and measurements. www.unl.edu/buros

Online Questionnaire Design

Decision Analyst

www.decisionanalyst.com
Decisive Technology

www.decisive.com

Perseus Development

www.perseusdevelopment.com
Socratic Technologies

www.sotech.com
SPSS

www.spss.com

Survey Builder
www.surveybuilder.com

SurveyPro
www.surveypro.com

SurveySez
www.surveysez.com

WebSurveyor
www.websurveyor.com

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Types of Scales:

Metric (interval & ratio)

Likert-type
Summated-Ratings (Likert)
Numerical
Semantic Differential
Graphic-Ratings
Nonmetric (nominal & ordinal)
Categorical
Constant Sum Method
Paired Comparisons
Rank Order
Sorting

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Examples of Likert-Type Scales:
When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what
it is like.
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Somewhat
1
2

Neither Agree
or Disagree
3

Disagree
Somewhat
4

Strongly
Disagree
5

When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what

it is like.

Strongly
Agree
1

Strongly
Disagree
5

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Summated Ratings Scales:
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to
indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with
each of a number of statements. A subjects attitude score
(summated rating) is the total obtained by summing over
the items in the scale and dividing by the number of items
to get the average.

Example:
My sales representative is . . . .
SD
D
Courteous
___ ___
Friendly
___ ___
Helpful
___ ___
Knowledgeable
___ ___

N
___
___
___
___

A
___
___
___
___

SA
___
___
___
___

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Alternative Approach to Summated Ratings scales:
When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what it is like.
Strongly
Agree
1

Agree
Somewhat
2

Neither Agree
or Disagree
3

Disagree
Somewhat
4

Strongly
Disagree
5

I always eat at new restaurants when someone tells me they are good.
Strongly
Agree
1

Agree
Somewhat
2

Neither Agree
or Disagree
3

Disagree
Somewhat
4

Strongly
Disagree
5

This approach includes a separate labeled Likert scale with each item
(statement). The summated rating is a total of the responses for all the
items divided by the number of items.

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Numerical Scales:
Example:
Using a 10-point scale, where 1 is not at all important
and 10 is very important, how important is ______ in
your decision to do business with a particular vendor.
Note: you fill in the blank with an attribute, such as reliable
delivery, product quality, complaint resolution, and so forth.

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Semantic Differential Scales:
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to
check which space between a set of bipolar adjectives or
phrases best describes their feelings toward the stimulus
object.
Example:
My sales representative is . . . .
Courteous
___ ___ ___ ___
Friendly
___ ___ ___ ___
Helpful
___ ___ ___ ___
Honest
___ ___ ___ ___

___
___
___
___

Discourteous
Unfriendly
Unhelpful
Dishonest

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Graphic-Ratings Scales:
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to indicate their
ratings of an attribute by placing a check at the appropriate point
on a line that runs from one extreme of the attribute to the other.
Please evaluate each attribute in terms of how important the
attribute is to you personally (your company) by placing an X
at the position on the horizontal line that most reflects your
feelings.
Not Important
Very Important
Courteousness
_____________________________________
Friendliness
_____________________________________
Helpfulness
_____________________________________
Knowledgeable
_____________________________________

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric

Categorical scale:
Categorical scales are nominally measured opinion
scales that have two or more response categories.
How satisfied are you with your current job?
[
[
[
[
[

]
]
]
]
]

Very Satisfied
Somewhat Satisfied
Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
Somewhat Dissatisfied
Very Dissatisfied

Note: Some researchers consider this a metric scale when coded 1 5 .

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric

Constant-Sum Method:
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to divide
some given sum among two or more attributes on the basis of
their importance to them.
Please divide 100 points among the following attributes in
terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you.

Courteous Service
Friendly Service
Helpful Service
Knowledgeable Service
Total

____
____
____
____
100

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric

Paired Comparison Method:
A scaling technique in which respondents are given
pairs of stimulus objects and asked which object in a
pair they prefer most.
Please circle the attribute describing a sales
representative which you consider most desirable.

Courteous
Friendly
Helpful

versus
versus
versus

Knowledgeable
Helpful
Courteous

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric

Sorting:
A scaling technique in which respondents are
asked to indicate their beliefs or opinions by
arranging objects (items) on the basis of
perceived importance, similarity, preference
or some other attribute.

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric

Rank Order Method:
A scaling technique in which respondents are presented
with several stimulus objects simultaneously and asked
to order or rank them with respect to a specific
characteristic.
Please rank the following attributes on how important each is
to you in relation to a sales representative. Place a 1 beside
the attribute which is most important, a 2 next to the
attribute that is second in importance, and so on.
Courteous Service
Friendly Service
Helpful Service
Knowledgeable Service

___
___
___
___

Scale Development

Practical Decisions When Developing Scales:

Number of items (indicators) to measure a concept?

Number of scale categories?
Odd or even number of categories?

(Include neutral point ?)

Balanced or unbalanced scales?
Forced or non-forced choice?
(Include Dont Know ?)
Category labels for scales?
Scale reliability and validity?

Scale Development
Balanced vs. Unbalanced Scales?
Balanced:
To what extent do you consider TV shows with sex and
violence to be acceptable for teenagers to view?
__ Very Acceptable
__ Somewhat Acceptable
__ Neither Acceptable or Unacceptable
__ Somewhat Unacceptable
__ Very Unacceptable
Unbalanced:
__ Very Acceptable
__ Somewhat Acceptable
__ Unacceptable

Scale Development

Forced or Non-Forced?
How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months?
Very
Very
Unlikely
Likely
1
2
3
4
5
6
__ No Opinion

Scale Development
Category Labels for Scales?
Verbal Label:
How important is the size of the hard drive in selecting a laptop PC to purchase?
Very
Somewhat
Neither Important
Somewhat
Very
Unimportant
Unimportant
or Unimportant
Important
Important
1
2
3
4
5
Numerical Label:
How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months?
Very
Very
Unlikely
Likely
1
2
3
4
5
Unlabeled:
How important is the weight of the laptop PC in deciding which brand
to purchase?
Very
Very
Unimportant

___

Important

___

___

___

___

MEASUREMENT SCALES

Choosing a Measurement Scale:

Capabilities of Respondents.
Context of Scale Application.
Data Analysis Approach.
Validity and Reliability.

MEASUREMENT SCALES

Assessing Measurement Scales:

Validity

Reliability
Measurement Error = occurs when the
values obtained in a survey (observed values)
are not the same as the true values
(population values).

RESEARCH DESIGN

Types of Errors:

Nonresponse = problem definition, refusal, sampling, etc.

Response = respondent or interviewer.
Data Collection Instrument:
Construct Development.
Scaling Measurement.
Questionnaire Design/Sequence, etc.
Data Analysis.
Interpretation.

SECONDARY DATA

Data that has been gathered

previously for other purposes.

SECONDARY DATA

Secondary Data Issues:

Availability
Relevance

Accuracy
Sufficiency

RESEARCH PROCESS
Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice

Hypotheses / Conceptualization

Research Design

Data collection

Data Analysis

Findings

Data Analysis
Methods:
Dependence

Multiple Regression
Discriminant Analysis
ANOVA/MANOVA

Interdependence

Factor Analysis
Cluster Analysis

Research Design & Data Collection

Learning Checkpoint:

Define a research problem to be studied.

Identify the topics /concepts that will be covered

to answer research questions.

Identify the types of questions and/or scaling
you will use.
How will you evaluate the questions/scales you use?
Determine the best way to collect the data.
Present group suggestions; defend.