Networks
Dr.M.ARAMUDHAN
Associate Professor
PKIET, Karaikal 609 603
Introduction
Characteristics of Ad Hoc Networks
Applications
Routing
Table-driven Routing Protocols
Source-initiated On-demand Routing
Hybrid Protocols
WLAN:
- To solve four nagging problems
- Mobility
- Mobility-to-Mobility networking
- relocation
- alternative to locations that are difficult to wire.
Advantages : - Installation and simplicity
- Installation flexibility
- Scalability
- Improved productivity and services
- Reduced cost of ownership.
Introduction
An ad-hoc network is a local area network (LAN) that is built
spontaneously as devices connect. Instead of relying on a base station
to coordinate the flow of messages to each node in the network, the
individual network nodes forward packets to and from each other.
A wireless ad hoc network is a decentralized type of wireless network.
The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a preexisting
infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or access points in
managed (infrastructure) wireless networks. Instead, each node
participates in routing by forwarding data for other nodes, and so the
determination of which nodes forward data is made dynamically based
on the network connectivity.
A Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is an autonomous system of nodes
(MSs) connected by wireless links.
A MANET does not necessarily need support from any existing network
infrastructure like an Internet gateway or other fixed stations.
MS2
MS2
MS4
MS3
Asymmetric link
MS5
MS7
Symmetric link
MS1
MS6
LAN Technologies
Network
connectivity
to the
legacy
wired LAN
Access Point
Laptop
with PCMCIA 802.11 LAN card
LAN Technologies
Three flavors:
802.11b
802.11a
802.11g
Frame Formats
Bytes:
2
Frame
Control
Duration
ID
Addr 1
6
Addr 2
Sequence
Control
Addr 3
0-2312
Frame
Body
Addr 4
4
CRC
Type
SubType
1
To
DS
From
DS
More
Frag
Retry
Pwr
Mgt
More
Data
WEP
Rsvd
Type
SubType
1
To
DS
From
DS
More
Frag
Retry
Pwr
Mgt
More
Data
WEP
Rsvd
From DS
Address 1
Address 2
Address 3
Address 4
DA
SA
BSSID
N/A
DA
BSSID
SA
N/A
BSSID
SA
DA
N/A
RA
TA
DA
SA
Type
SubType
1
To
DS
From
DS
More
Frag
Retry
Pwr
Mgt
More
Data
WEP
Rsvd
(Re)Association
(De)Authentication
Power Management
Type=01 Control Frame
RTS/CTS
Type=10 Data Frame
ACK
LAN Technologies
sender
RTS
receiver
other node in
receivers range
CTS
data
ACK
HIPERLAN
Type 1
HIPERLAN
Type 2
Wireless LAN
Wireless ATM
Indoor access
Wireless ATM
Remote Access
Wireless ATM
Interconnect
MAC
DLC
DLC
DLC
PHY
(5 GHz)
20 + Mb/sec
PHY
(5 GHz)
20 + Mb/sec
PHY
(5 GHz)
20 + Mb/sec
PHY
(17 GHz)
150 + Mb/sec
HIPERLAN
Type 3
HIPERLAN
Type 4
Application
Frequency
Topology
Antenna
Range
QoS
Mobility
Interface
Data rate
Power
conservation
HIPERLAN 1
wireless LAN
HIPERLAN 2
access to ATM
fixed networks
HIPERLAN 3
wireless local
loop
HIPERLAN 4
point-to-point
wireless ATM
connections
17.2-17.3GHz
point-to-point
5.1-5.3GHz
decentralized adcellular,
point-tohoc/infrastructure
centralized
multipoint
omni-directional
directional
50 m
50-100 m
5000 m
150 m
statistical
ATM traffic classes (VBR, CBR, ABR, UBR)
<10m/s
stationary
conventional LAN
ATM networks
23.5 Mbit/s
>20 Mbit/s
yes
155 Mbit/s
not necessary
Characteristics
Data transmission
point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, connectionless
23.5 Mbit/s, 1 W power, 2383 byte max. packet size
Services
asynchronous and time-bounded services with hierarchical
priorities
compatible with ISO MAC
Topology
infrastructure or ad-hoc networks
transmission range can be larger then coverage of a single node
(forwarding integrated in mobile terminals)
Further mechanisms
power saving, encryption, checksums
Physical Layer
OSI
Reference Model
HIPERLAN
Reference Model
Scope
modulation, demodulation, bit and frame synchronization
forward error correction mechanisms
measurements of signal strength
channel sensing
Channels
3 mandatory and 2 optional channels (with their carrier frequencies)
mandatory
channel 0: 5.1764680 GHz
channel 1: 5.1999974 GHz
channel 2: 5.2235268 GHz
optional
channel 3: 5.2470562 GHz
channel 4: 5.2705856 GHz
synchronization
data0
data1
Modulation
GMSK for high bit-rate, FSK for LBR header
...
datam-1
HIPERLAN 1 - EY-NPMA I
transmission
priority assertion
elimination burst
prioritization
IESV
IYS
contention
user data
IES
yield listening
IPA
elimination survival
verification
IPS
priority detection
transmission
HIPERLAN 1 - EY-NPMA II
Several terminals can now have the same priority and wish to send
contention phase
Elimination Burst: all remaining terminals send a burst to eliminate
contenders (11111010100010011100000110010110, high bit- rate)
Elimination Survival Verification: contenders now sense the
channel, if the channel is free they can continue, otherwise they
have been eliminated
Yield Listening: contenders again listen in slots with a nonzero
probability, if the terminal senses its slot idle it is free to transmit at
the end of the contention phase
the important part is now to set the parameters for burst duration
and channel sensing (slot-based, exponentially distributed)
data transmission
the winner can now send its data (however, a small chance of
collision remains)
if the channel was idle for a longer time (min. for a duration of 1700
bit) a terminal can send at once without using EY-NPMA
synchronization using the last data transmission
Piconet
Collection of devices connected in an
ad hoc fashion
One unit acts as master and the others
as slaves for the lifetime of the piconet
Master determines hopping pattern,
slaves have to synchronize
Each piconet has a unique hopping
pattern
Participation in a piconet =
synchronization to hopping sequence
Each piconet has one master and up to
7 simultaneous slaves (> 200 could be
parked)
SB
S
P
M=Master
S=Slave
SB
P=Parked
SB=Standby
Characteristics
Forming a piconet
SB
SB
SB
SB
SB
SB
SB
SB
SB
S
SB
P
S
M
P
S
P
SB
Scatternet
M
SB
M=Master
S=Slave
P=Parked
SB=Standby
SB
SB
S
NW apps.
vCal/vCard
TCP/UDP
OBEX
telephony apps.
AT modem
commands
IP
mgmnt. apps.
TCS BIN
SDP
BNEP PPP
Control
Host
Controller
Interface
Five main protocols : Bluetooth radio, base band, Link manager protocol,
Logical link control and adaptation protocol and service discovery protocol.
Bluetooth radio is responsible for the electrical interference to the
communication media, coding/decoding and modulation/demodulation of
data transmission.
Base band layer and link controller control physical links via radio layer by
assembling packets, controlling frequency hopping and performing error
checking and correction.
LMP is responsible for connection setup and maintenance.
L2CAP performs management and data flow control. Connection oriented
and connection less links , QoS, protocol multiplexing, segmentation and
reassembly and group management.
Identity the device, establish connection and data transmission.
Routing Classification
The existing routing protocols can be classified as,
Proactive: when a packet needs to be forwarded,
the route is already known.
Reactive: Determine a route only when there is data
to send.
CGSR (Contd)
6
12
11
4
10
2
1
9
8
3
Gateway Node
Cluster Head
Internal Node
Node waits for a route reply. If the reply is not received within
certain time, the node rebroadcast RREQ.
Ensure that all routes are loop-free and up-to-date. Each node
maintains its own sequence number as well as broadcast ID.
Node received RREQ, it checks already available by noting
source and broad cast ID pair. If so, it discards the message.
ROUTE MAINTAINCE: Each node peridically transmit a
broadcast message called HELLO and updates the information
associated with neighbour.
Hop2
Hop3
7
2
5
Source 1
8 Destination
3
6
Source 1
8 Destination
3
4
<1>
Source 11
Hop2
Hop3
77
<1,2>
5
<1>
33
Hop4
<1,3,5,7>
<1,3,5>
8 Destination
<1,3>
<1>
44
<1,4,6>
<1,4>
2
5
Source 1
8 Destination
<1,4,6>
6
4
<1,4,6>
<1,4,6>
TORA (Contd)
Source
H=3
H=2
H=1
H=0
Destination
TORA (Contd)
During the route creation and maintenance phases
nodes use a height metric to establish a Directed
Acyclic Graph (DAG) rooted at the destination.
Thereafter links are assigned a direction based on
the relative heights
TORA (Contd)
2
(-,-)
Source
5
(-,-)
3
(-,-)
(-,-)
7
(-,-)
(0,0)
6
(-,-)
4
(-,-)
Destination
1
(0,3)
3
(0,3)
4
(0,2)
5
(0,2)
7
(0,1)
8
6
(0,1)
(0,0)
Destination
Hybrid protocols
Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP): a node proactively
maintains routes to destinations within a local
neighborhood. The construction of a routing zone
requires a node to first know who its neighbor,
which is implemented through a MAC layer
Neighbor Discovery Protocol.
Fisheye State Routing (FSR): There are multilevel fisheye scopes to reduce routing update
overhead in large networks. It helps to make a
routing protocol scalable by gathering data on the
topology, which may be needed soon.
Landmark Routing (LANMAR): Uses a landmark
Route
Acquisition
Multipath
Capability
DSDV
Computed a
priori
No
No
No
WRP
Computed a
priori
No
No
No
DSR
On-demand,
only when
needed
Yes. Aggressive
use of caching
may reduce flood
Yes
Not explicitly.
The technique
of salvaging
may quickly
restore a route
Route
Acquisition
Multipath
Capability
AODV
On-demand,
only when
needed
Yes. Controlled
use of cache to
reduce flood
Yes
No, although
recent research
indicate viability
TORA
On-demand,
only when
needed
Yes
LAR
On-demand,
only when
needed
Reduced by
using location
information
Yes
No
ZRP
Hybrid
Only outside a
source's zone
No
Sensor Networks
Sensor networks are highly distributed networks of small, lightweight
wireless node, deployed in large numbers to monitor the
environment or system.
Each node of the sensor networks consist of three subsystem:
Sensor subsystem: senses the environment
Processing subsystem: performs local computations on the
sensed data
Communication subsystem: responsible for message exchange
with neighboring sensor nodes
The features of sensor nodes
Limited sensing region, processing power, energy
Power supply
Communication
device
Controller
Sensor(s)/
actuator(s)
Power supply
62
Controller
Main options:
Microcontroller general purpose processor, optimized for embedded
applications, low power consumption
DSPs optimized for signal processing tasks, not suitable here
FPGAs may be good for testing
ASICs only when peak performance is needed, no flexibility
Example microcontrollers
Texas Instruments MSP430
16-bit RISC core, up to 4 MHz, versions with 2-10 kbytes RAM,
several DACs, RT clock, prices start at 0.49 US$
Atmel ATMega
8-bit controller, larger memory than MSP430, slower
63
Communication device
Which transmission medium?
Electromagnetic at radio frequencies?
Electromagnetic, light?
Ultrasound?
64
Transceiver characteristics
Capabilities
Interface: bit, byte, packet level?
Supported frequency range?
Typically, somewhere in 433
MHz 2.4 GHz, ISM band
Multiple channels?
Data rates?
Range?
Energy characteristics
Power consumption to
send/receive data?
Time and energy consumption to
change between different states?
Transmission power control?
Power efficiency (which
percentage of consumed power is
radiated?)
Radio performance
Modulation? (ASK, FSK, ?)
Noise figure? NF = SNRI/SNRO
Gain? (signal amplification)
Receiver sensitivity? (minimum S to
achieve a given Eb/N0)
Blocking performance (achieved BER
in presence of frequency-offset
interferer)
Out of band emissions
Carrier sensing & RSSI characteristics
Frequency stability (e.g., towards
temperature changes)
Voltage range
65
Transceiver states
Transceivers can be put into different operational states, typically:
Transmit
Receive
Idle ready to receive, but not doing so
Some functions in hardware can be switched off, reducing energy
consumption a little
Sleep significant parts of the transceiver are switched off
Not able to immediately receive something
Recovery time and startup energy to leave sleep state can be
significant
Research issue: Wakeup receivers can be woken via radio when in sleep
state (seeming contradiction!)
66
Chipcon CC 2400
Implements 802.15.4
2.4 GHz, DSSS modem
250 kbps
Higher power
consumption than above
transceivers
Infineon TDA 525x family
E.g., 5250: 868 MHz
ASK or FSK modulation
RSSI, highly efficient
power amplifier
Intelligent power down,
self-polling mechanism
Excellent blocking
performance
67
Wakeup receivers
Major energy problem: RECEIVING
Idling and being ready to receive consumes considerable amounts of
power
When to switch on a receiver is not clear
Contention-based MAC protocols: Receiver is always on
TDMA-based MAC protocols: Synchronization overhead, inflexible
Desirable: Receiver that can (only) check for incoming messages
When signal detected, wake up main receiver for actual reception
Ideally: Wakeup receiver can already process simple addresses
Not clear whether they can be actually built, however
68
Sensors as such
Main categories
Any energy radiated? Passive vs. active sensors
Sense of direction? Omidirectional?
Passive, omnidirectional
Examples: light, thermometer, microphones, hygrometer,
Passive, narrow-beam
Example: Camera
Active sensors
Example: Radar
Important parameter: Area of coverage
Which region is adequately covered by a given sensor?
69
70
Energy scavenging
How to recharge a battery?
A laptop: easy, plug into wall socket in the evening
A sensor node? Try to scavenge energy from environment
Ambient energy sources
Light ! solar cells between 10 W/cm2 and 15 mW/cm2
Temperature gradients 80 W/cm2 @ 1 V from 5K difference
Vibrations between 0.1 and 10000 W/cm3
Pressure variation (piezo-electric) 330 W/cm2 from the heel of a
shoe
Air/liquid flow
(MEMS gas turbines)
71
Energy consumption
A back of the envelope estimation
Number of instructions
Energy per instruction: 1 nJ
Small battery (smart dust): 1 J = 1 Ws
Corresponds: 109 instructions!
Lifetime
Or: Require a single day operational lifetime = 246060 =86400 s
1 Ws / 86400s 11.5 W as max. sustained power consumption!
Not feasible!
72
73
74
75
Process
sensor
data
Poll transceiver
Process
received
packet
76
Traditional concurrency:
Handle sensor
Handle packet
Processes
process
process
Traditional OS: processes/threads
Based on interrupts, context
switching
But: not available memory
overhead, execution overhead
But: concurrency mismatch
One process per protocol
entails too many context
switches
Many tasks in WSN small with
respect to context switching
overhead
And: protection between processes
not needed in WSN
Only one application anyway
OS-mediated
process switching
77
Event-based concurrency
Alternative: Switch to event-based programming model
Perform regular processing or be idle
React to events when they happen immediately
Basically: interrupt handler
Problem: must not remain in interrupt handler too long
Danger of loosing events
Only save data, post information that event has happened, then
return
! Run-to-completion principle
Two contexts: one for handlers, one for regular execution
Radio
Sensor
event
event
Idle / Regular
processing
Sensor event
handler
Sensor networks - Node architecture
78
Components instead of
processes
Need an abstraction to group functionality
Replacing processes for this purpose
E.g.: individual functions of a networking protocol
One option: Components
Here: In the sense of TinyOS
Typically fulfill only a single, well-defined function
Main difference to processes:
Component does not have an execution
Components access same address space, no protection
against each other
NOT to be confused with component-based programming!
Sensor networks - Node architecture
79
80
"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
MAC protocol
During the data transmission phase, the distributed TDMA receiver
oriented channel (DTROC) assignment MAC protocol is used.
Two steps of DTROC :
Channel allocation : Each node is assigned a reception channel by the
BS, and channel reuse is such that collisions are avoided.
Channel scheduling : The node schedules transmission slots for all its
neighbors and broadcasts the schedule. This enables collision-free
transmission and saves energy, as nodes can turn off when they are not
involved on a send/receive operation.
Routing protocol
Downlink from the BS is by direct broadcast on the control channel.
Uplink from the sensor nodes to BS is by multi-hop data forwarding.
The node to which a packet is to be forwarded is selected
considering the remaining energy of the nodes. This achieves a
higher network lifetime.
"Ad Hoc Wireless Networks", by C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, published by Prentice Hall, 2004
After selection, the cluster-heads advertise their selection to all nodes. All nodes
choose their nearest cluster-head by signal strength (RSSI). The cluster-heads
then assign a TDMA schedule for their cluster members.
Classification of Sensor
Networks
Proactive Networks
The nodes in the network periodically switch on their
sensors and transmitters, sense the environment and
transmit the data of interest.
Reactive Networks
In this scheme the nodes react immediately to sudden
and drastic changes in the value of the sensed attribute.
3.2
Base Station
3
3.3
2
2.3
1.0.1
1.0.2
2.1
2.2
1.2.5
1.2.4
1.0.3
1.2
1.1.2
1.1
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.1
1.1.5
1.2.1
1.2.3
1.2.2
Simple sensor node
First Level Cluster Head
Second Level Cluster Head
Parameters
Cluster Formation
Cluster Change Time
TEEN (Contd)
The nodes sense their environment continuously.
The first time a parameter from the attribute set reaches its hard
threshold value, the node switches on its transmitter and sends
the sensed data.
The sensed value is stored in an internal variable, called Sensed
Value (SV).
The nodes will transmit data in the current cluster period only
when the following conditions are true:
-- The current value of the sensed attribute is greater than the
hard threshold.
-- The current value of the sensed attribute differs from SV by an
amount equal to or greater than the soft threshold.
TEEN
Important features:
Suited for time critical sensing applications.
Message transmission consumes more energy than
data sensing. So the energy consumption in this
scheme is less than the proactive networks.
The soft threshold can be varied.
At every cluster change time, the parameters are
broadcast afresh and so, the user can change them as
required.
The main drawback is that if the thresholds are not
reached, then the nodes will never communicate.
Functioning:
The cluster heads broadcasts the following parameters:
Attributes (A): This is a set of physical parameters which
the user is interested in obtaining data about.
Thresholds: This parameter consists of a Hard
Threshold (HT) and a Soft Threshold (ST).
Schedule: This is a TDMA schedule, assigning a slot to
each node.
Count Time (CT): It is the maximum time period between
two successive reports sent by a node.
Cluster Formation
Frame Time
Cluster Change Time
APTEEN (Contd)
The node senses the environment continuously.
Only those nodes which sense a data value at or beyond
the hard threshold transmit.
Once a node senses a value beyond HT, it next
transmits data only when the value of that attribute
changes by an amount equal to or greater than the ST.
If a node does not send data for a time period equal to
the count time, it is forced to sense and retransmit the
data.
A TDMA schedule is used and each node in the cluster
is assigned a transmission slot.
APTEEN (Contd)
Main features of the scheme:
It combines both proactive and reactive policies.
It offers a lot of flexibility by allowing the user to set the
count-time interval (CT) and the threshold values for
the attributes.
Energy consumption can be controlled by changing
the count time as well as the threshold values.
The main drawback of the scheme is the additional
complexity required to implement the threshold
functions and the count time.
Flat
Reservation-based scheduling
Contention-based scheduling
Collisions avoided