Conductor

Electron
Core
29P

Isolated copper Atom

Valence orbit
has only one
Electron and is
loosely bound
to core

Semiconductor
Electron

Energy
r3

r2
r2

r3

r1
14P

r1

Center of core

Energy levels in a
single atom
Electrons in the same
orbit has same energy

Valence orbit
has four electrons

Isolated silicon atom

A silicon crystal is formed by

zillions of silicon atoms

Covalent Bond
Electron
14P

14P

14P

14P

14P

Silicon crystal

An electron
shared by two
neighboring atoms
to form a covalent
bond.
This way an atom
can have a stable
structure with
eight valence band
electrons.

Higher band higher energy

Energy bands
Conduction band

Electron (in conduction band)

Hole (in valence band)

Valence band

2nd

band

14P

1st band

In a crystal, electrons in the same orbit do not

have the same energy and thus form energy bands

Thermal energy produces free electron and

hole pair
Electron (in conduction band)

14P

14P

14P

14P

Hole (in valence band)

14P

Recombination of free electron and hole

Electron (in conduction band)

14P

14P

14P

14P

Hole (in valence band)

14P

Hole/electron flow through a semiconductor

+
Free Electron (in conduction band)
+
+
+
+
14P
14P
14P
+
A C D F
+
B
E
+
14P
14P
Hole 14P
+
+ (in valence band)

The electron moves F-E-D-C-B-A

The hole moves A-B-C-D-E-F (pseudo movement)

Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic = pure
Extrinsic = impure or doped

Doping
Doping means mixing a pure semiconductor with
impurities to increase its electrical conductivity

Can be done in two ways:

Increasing the number of electrons by mixing
pentavalent elements such as phosphorous,
arsenic, antimony (means adding donor impurities)
Increasing the number of holes by mixing
trivalent elements such as aluminum, boron, gallium
(means adding acceptor impurities)

N-type semiconductor
Has many free electrons in conduction band and few holes
In valence band
Free Electron
Phosphorous atom
14P

14P

15P

14P

14P

P-type semiconductor
Has few free electrons in conduction band and many holes
In valence band
Hole

Aluminum atom
14P

14P

13P

14P

14P

Majority and minority carriers

Electrons are
Majority carriers in N-type semiconductor
Minority carriers in P-type semiconductor
Holes are
Majority carriers in P-type semiconductor
Minority carriers in N-type semiconductor

A diode is formed by putting a N-type

and P-type of semiconductor together
P-N Junction
P type

Anode

N type

Cathode

Note: Both N and P-type of materials are electrically neutral

Migration of holes from P to N

And electrons from N to P causes
a formation of depletion layer
P type

Anode

--+
--+
--+
--+

+
+
+
+

N type

Cathode

This gives rise to barrier potential(E)

preventing further migration of
holes and electrons

Energy bands in a unbiased diode

Depletion layer
Energy

N
Conduction band

Valence band

Forward Biased diode

P type

N type
-+
-+
-+
-+

Anode

Cathode

R
+

V
-

VB

Energy bands of a forward biased diode

Smaller depletion layer

Energy
P

N
Conduction band

Valence band

Forward Biased diode

The diode behaves like a ON switch in this mode
Resistance R and diodes body resistance
limits the current through the diode
VB has to overcome V in order for the diode to
conduct

Reverse biased diode

Larger depletion layer
P type

Anode

N type
-

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

VB

Cathode

Energy bands in a reverse biased diode

Larger Depletion layer
Energy

N
Conduction band

Valence band

Reverse Biased diode

The diode behaves like a OFF switch in this mode
If we continue to increase reverse voltage V
breakdown voltage of the diode is reached

Once breakdown voltage is reached diode conducts

heavily causing its destruction

Breakdown
Diode breakdown is caused by thermally
generated electrons in the depletion region
When the reverse voltage across diode reaches
breakdown voltage these electrons will get
sufficient energy to collide and dislodge other
electrons
The number of high energy electrons increases
in geometric progression leading to an avalanche
effect causing heavy current and ultimately
destruction of diode