Neuroscience

is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system.

It spans the structure, function, evolutionary, development,
genetic, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, informatics,
computational, and pathology study of the nervous system.
Traditionally it is a branch of the biological sciences.

Subdivisions/Disciplines
Molecular and Cellular neuroscience
Behavioral neuroscience
Systems neuroscience
Developmental neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience
Theoretical and computational neuroscience
Neural engineering

Nervous System Function

In all animals

Obtains information from the environment

Processes information
Stores information
Generates behavior

Additional functions in humans

Feeling
Abstract thought

General Intro to Systems Biology

Genes

Proteins are encoded by genes

Genes consist of sequences of DNA nucleotides

Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Genes have coding (exons) and non-coding
(introns) regions
Each amino acid is specified by three nucleotides
(codon)

Figure 1.1 Estimated number of genes in four animal genomes

Genome- collective set of genes in an

organism
~25K

 Majority of Genes expressed in brain

Genes associated with
Neurodisease- SNPs
(introns+exons)
CNS: Encompasses sensory, motor,
and association processing systems
PNS: sensory and motor
communication with CNS
Nervous System Functions are Distributed

Figure 1.3 The major light and electron microscopical features of neurons (Part 1)

Neurons are
specialized cells in NS
Neurons
communicate via
synapses-specialized
points of
chemical/electrical
contact
Electrical signals are
transferred between
neurons
Neurons have
organelles found in
other cells

Neurons

Neurons have organelles found in all

cells
Mitochondria for energy
Nucleus containing chromasomes,
site of transcription, production of
mRNA
Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
for protein synthesis
Cytoskeleton proteins such as
actin, tubulin and myosin

Neuronal Soma Organelles

Nucleus
Contains DNA - genetic material
High level of transcription in neurons
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Ribosomes attached
Functions in Protein Translation

 Ribosomes
Structures for rotein translation

Golgi apparatus
Post-translation modification of
proteins
Packaging of proteins for transport

Neuronal Soma Organelles

Mitochondria
Energy Production
Calcium storage
Apoptosis - programmed cell
death

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Calcium storage and release

Ramon y Cajal
Histological (Golgi) Staining of human brain
tissue
Neuronal Tracing/Morphology
Neuron Doctrine: Neurons are basic FN units

Camillo Golgi
Developed Golgi Technique
Impregnation of cells with
Silver salts to resolve subcellular
structures.

 Major Components of
Neurons
Soma = Cell body
Differ in size/shape
Site of most Protein
synthesis
Dendrites (input)
Differ in branching
pattern/complexity
Signal Integration
Protein Synthesis
Axon (output)
Differ in length and
projection
Incoming Signal
Integration
AP source

Neuron Morphology and Diversity

Directionality to Information Processing

Neuron Morphology and Diversity

Input
of Information

Output of Information

Electron Micrograph (EM)

Major Features of Neurons

Branching

Nucleus

Myelin

Plasma
membrane
Plasma Membrane

Phospholipid Bilayer

Separates intracellular and

extracellular contents
Maintains a concentration
gradient of ions

Anchors proteins embedded

within the membrane
Enzymes
Channels

Site of
Exocytosis/Endocytosis
Release of neurotransmitter
vesicles
Internalization of membrane
associated molecules

 B: axon hillock / initial segment- non-myelinated, site of many

ion channels, site of initiation of AP
Major Features of Axons

G: nodes of Ranvier-non-myelinated regions along axon,

enhance and electrical signal conduction
C: synaptic terminals- subcellular structures for
neurotransmission- electrical/chemical

Major Features of Axons

Myelin produced by
oligodendrocyte
(glia)
Terminals
Vesicles of
neurotransmitter

EM of Dendritic Spine and

synapse
AT: Axon terminal

Post-synaptic density
ine
Dendrite

Immunohistochemistry refers to the process of localizing proteins in

cells based on the principle of antibodies binding specifically to their
protein antigens in tissue.
Visualizing the
antibody-antigen
interaction can be
accomplished in 2
primary ways:

1. conjugating the
antibody to an enzyme
aka peroxidase staining
2. Conjugating the
antibody to a
fluorophore aka
immunofluorescence
staining

fluorophore
Secondary antibody
Primary antibody

visualized
intracellular protein

visualized
cell surface
protein

Fluorescent Immunostaining to
Visualize Cells and ProteinsCytoskeletal Elements

Green = Tubulin, the

protein constituent of
microtubules
(A) Red = microtubule
binding protein (tau),
only in axons
(B) Red = actin, only in
tips of growing axons
and dendrites

Neuroglial cells (Dividing cells) Glia-- glue

No significant electrical signaling
Outnumber neurons in brain by 3:1
3 types Astrocytes
Star like shape
Modulate neural signaling
Neurotransmitter uptake/Ion Buffering
Release Growth Factors and Cytokines
Neural Development + Repair

Glia

Myelin producing Cells

Oligodendroctyes in CNS
Schwann cells in PNS
Microglial cells
Related to immune macrophages
Scavenge cell debris from injury or
death
Secrete cytokines modulate
inflammation

Myelin

Myelin
Lipid rich wrapping of cell membrane around
axons
On average 20 wraps/axon segment
Results in- Electrical Insulation of the segment,
1. Increases electrical potential of axons 2.
Enhances neurotransmission
Seen as alternating light and dark bands on EM

Myelin

Figure 1.5 Varieties of neuroglial cells