introduction
TRUSS:-A TRUSS CONSIST OF AN ASSEMBLY OF RIGID BUT
Connections in trusses
Various forms of truss or lattice girder may be defined depending on the span and load configuration.
Lattice girders have parallel top and bottom chords and are used as beams, whereas trusses may have inclined top chords for use
in roofs.
In both cases, the connections between the members may be bolted or welded. Welded connections are often preferred in tubular
construction, or where the cumulative effect of bolt slip is critical to the design of the truss. These splices should be located and
detailed carefully if they are architecturally important.
Traditionally, roof trusses used angles, with bolted and gusseted connections ( Figure a).The projection lines of the bolt settingout lines are detailed in such a way that eccentricities in the forces transmitted by the bolt groups are minimised.
THE STRENGTH OF A STRUCTURAL FRAME DEPENDS ON THE STRENGTH OF THE MATERIAL USED IN THE
FABRICATION OF THE MEMBERS OF THE FRAME AND THE STABILITY OF THE FRAME OR FRAMES OR THE WAY IN
WHICH THE MEMBERS OF FRAME ARE CONNECTED, AND ON BRACING ACROSS AND BETWEEN FRAMES.
STEEL IS THE MATERIAL THAT IS MOST USED IN FRAMED STRUCTURE BECAUSE OF ITS GOOD COMPRESSIVE AND
TENSILE STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO.
THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF HOT ROLLING STEEL AND COLD FORMING STEEL STRIP PRODUCES A WIDE RANGE OF
SECTIONS SUITED TO THE FABRICATION OF ECONOMICAL STRUCTURAL FRAMES.
DURABILITY AND FREEDOM FROM MAINTENANCE:
ON EXPOSURE TO AIR AND MOISTURE, UNPROTECTED STEEL CORRODES TO FORM AN OXIDE COATING, i.e. RUST,
WHICH IS PERMEABLE TO MOISTURE AND THUS ENCOURAGES PROGRESSIVE CORROSION WHICH MAY IN TIME
ADVERSELY AFFECT THE SRENGTH OF THE MATERIALS.
TO INHIBIT RUST, STEEL IS EITHER PAINTED OR COATED WITH ZINC. PAINTED SURFACES REQUIRE PERIODIC
REPAINTING. ZINC COATINGS THAT ARE PERFORATED BY CUTTING AND DRILLING WILL NOT PROTECT THE EXPOSED
STEEL BELOW WHICH WILL CORRODE PROGRESSIVELY.
FIRE SAFETY:
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FIRE RESISTANCE OF STRUCTURE DO NOT
APPLY TO ROOF STRUCTURES UNLESS THE ROOF IS USED AS A FLOOR,
NOR TO SINGLE-STOREY STRUCTURES SUPPORTING A ROOF EXCEPT
WHERE A WALL IS CLOSED TO A BOUNDARY AND IS REQUIRED TO HAVE
RESISTANCE TO THE SPREAD OF FIRE BETWEEN ADJACENT BUILDINGS
HAVING REGARD TO THE HEIGHT, USE AND POSITION OF THE BUILDING.
STEEL ROOF TRUSSES SHOULD BE DESIGNED IN SUCH A WAY THAT ALL THE MEMBERS OF A TRUSS ARE EITHER
IN COMPRESSION OR IN TENSION AND DO NOT HAVE ANY BENDING STRESS IN THEM. THE TRANSVERSE STRESSES
ARE UNAVOIDABLE, SUCH AS IN A TIE-BEAM WITH THE CEILING ATTACHEDTO ITS UNDERSIDE, OR PRINCIPAL
RAFTER CARRYING A PURLIN, ETC.
THE COMPRESSION MEMBERS SUCH AS STRUTS SHOULD BE AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE TO AVOID BUCKLING AND
THE PRINCIPAL RAFTERS SUBJECTED TO TRANSVERSE STRESSES SHOULD NOT BE LONGER THAN 3 METRES
MAXIMUM. THE TENSION MEMBERS SHOULD BE BRACED TOGETHER.
T-SECTIONS ARE BEST SUITED FOR USE AS PRINCIPAL RAFTERS, WHEREAS ANGLE IRONS OR CHANNEL SECTIONS
ARE USED AS STRUTS. THE TENSION MEMBERS SHOULD PREFERABLY BE OF A ROUND OR A FLAT SECTION. THE
VARIOUS MEMBERS MAY BE BUILT OF TWO OR MORE SECTIONS, e.g., A PRINCIPAL RAFTER MAY BE MADE OF TWO
ANGLES PLACED SIDE BY SIDE. IN AN IDEAL DESIGN ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE STRUCTURE SHOULD FAIL
SIMULTANEOUSLY. IN PRACTICE, ANGLES LESS THAN 50 x 50 x 6 mm ARE NOT USED.
LARGER TRUSSES ARE USUALLY FABRICATED AND ASSEMBLED TOGETHER AT THE JOB SITE OWING TO THE DIFFICULTY OF
TRANSPORTATION. TRUSSES ARE ERECTED BY A CRANK GANTRY AND CONNECTED TO THE BUILDING BY MEANS OF RAG
BOLTS. ALL THE MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES MUST BE PAINTED AT INTERVALS TO PREVENT CORROSION.
ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE TRUSS SHOULD BE ARRANGED TO FORM TRIANGLES SO THAT THE TRUSS WILL NOT DEFORM TO A
GREATER EXTENT. REACTIONS AT THE ENDS OF TRUSSES ARE VERTICAL FOR FREE ENDS AND INCLINED FOR FIXED ENDS.
THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE STEEL ROOF TRUSSES SHOULD NOT EXCEED 3 METRES. THIS DISTANCE OR SPACING IS MORE
FOR LIGHT ROOFS.
THE JOINTS OR CONNECTIONS OF MEMBERS TO EACH OTHER ARE CALLED NODES OR PANEL POINTS AND ARE MADE BY
MEANS OF THIN FLAT PLATES CALLED GUSSET PLATES OR GUSSETS TO WHICH THE ENDS OF MEMBERS ARE RIVETED OR
BOLTED. THE PANEL POINTS OR NODES ON RAFTERS ARE USUALLY SPACED AT ABOUT 2 m CENTRES FOR AVERAGE CASES
BUT IN NO CASE MORE THAN 3 METRES.
IN RIVETING, THE PITCH OF THE RIVETS SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 3 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF
THE RIVETS. THE MAXIMUM PITCH IS 15 cm FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS AND 20 cm FOR TENSION
MEMBERS. A MINIMUM DISTANCE FROM THE CENTRE OF THE RIVET TO THE EDGE OF THE MEMBER
MUST NOT BE LESS THAN 25 mm FOR 15 mm DIA. RIVETS. GENERALLY 15 mm DIA. RIVETS ARE USED
FOR SMALLER SPANS AND 20 mm RIVETS ARE USED FOR BIGGER SPANS. MINIMUM TWO RIVETS
SHOULD BE USED FOR ALL CONNECTIONS.
THOUGH THE THICKNESS OF GUSSET PLATES DEPENDS UPON THE BEARING VALUE OF THE RIVETS
EMPLOYED, THICKNESS OF 6 mm AND 10 mm ARE PROVIDED FOR SMALL AND LARGE ROOF
TRUSSES, RESPECTIVELY.
FOR LONG SPAN TRUSSES , ONE END SHOULD BE FIXED, AND THE OTHER END
IS MOUNTED ON STEEL ROLLERS FOR A
FREE LATERAL MOVEMENT FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES.
FOR A SERIES OF TRUSSES, WIND TIE AND DIAGONAL BRACES BETWEEN THE
TWO END TRUSSES SHOULD BE PROVIDED ON
EITHER SIDE TO PREVENT THE GENERAL DISTORTION OF THE ROOF DUE TO
WIND ACTION.
Column bases
Column bases can be designed as nominally pinned (simple) or moment
resisting (rigid). Nominally pinned bases are only required to transmit axial and shear
forces into the foundation, and are provided in braced structures and in portal frames.
They are generally preferred to moment-resisting base connections for reasons of cost
and practicality. Uplift due to internal wind pressure and external wind suction may
have to be considered in single-storey structures, which leads to a minimum size of
foundation for a given building size.
Moment-resisting bases may be required in rigid-frame structures in order to
reduce the effects of sway and deflections. These bases and their foundations are
considerably larger than for nominally pinned column bases.
Holding down (HD) systems are designed to satisfy the following
requirements:
1,In service, they must transmit shear from the column to the foundation; if HD bolts
are
fitted using oversize holes in the base-plate, then shear must be resisted by other
means.
2,During erection, they must be capable of stabilising the column and other structural
elements. Thus, four bolts are provided, even in a nominally pinned connection.
3,They must resist uplift, depending on the design condition.
The base plate should be of sufficient size, stiffness and strength to transmit
the compressive force and bending moment from the column to the foundation through
the bedding material, without exceeding the local bearing capacity of the foundation.
Usually the force transfer from the column to the base plate is by direct
bearing, and the welds between them are designed to resist shear only. Where
Generally, the thickness of the base plate is chosen so that it does not
require additional stiffening. However, there may be architectural 2e;i in using shaped
stiffeners in exposed applications.
To allow for tolerances in the concrete foundation, the top surface of the
concrete is designed to be 30 to 50 mm below the bottom of base plate. The column
is temporarily supported on steel packs and wedges which permit vertical adjustment
of the column. HighStrength grout is then injected under the plate, and the wedges areremoved when the
grout has gained sufficient strength. Where column bases are required to be
concealed, an allowance for this gap and for the end-plate and the projecting bolts
must be made when determining the covering to this detail (typically 100 to 120 mm
should be allowed). This may increase to 300 or 450 mm where rainwater downpipes
are also located in the column zone.
Gusset plate
(6No. bolts)
Bracing connection
either beam or
The simplest form of bracing member is the steel angle, either placed singly
or in pairs back to back. Single angles are less efficient in compression than double
angles. Various forms of bracing assemblies may be used, such as X- and K-bracing,
in which the members may be designed to resist tension or compression.Typical
bracing connections using angle sections are shown in Figure above. Angles designed
for tension only will be more slender than those designed to resist both tension and
compression.
Tubular connections are often preferred for bracing connections bec.mse of their good
compression resistance
(c) ue Chord
Scissor truss
The scissor truss is a variant of a standard truss form and offers architectural
possibilities and greater headroom, but is structurally less efficient because of its
shallower depth.
North light roof truss
North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in industrial workshop-type
buildings. They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use
of glazing on the steeper pitch which generally faces north or north-east to reduce the
solar gain.
Developments of rooff[lrm
Most of the above lattice girders and trusses can be further developed into more
interesting structural and architectural forms. Some possibilities, induding curved and
mansard roofs, are illustrated in Figure below.
advantages
100% non-combustible
Long clear-span capabilities
Limitless roof and ceiling profiles--just like wood
trusses
Lightweight
Pre-engineered and pre-fabricated by truss
professionals
Reduce or eliminate attic sprinkling systems
Compatible with almost any decking/roofing system
Relieves design firms of costly, time consuming roof
design work--frees them up for more productive
endeavors
RIGID PORTAL FRAMES ARE AN ECONOMIC ALTERNATIVE TO LATTICE TRUSS AND LATTICE BEAM ROOFS.
TO BE EFFECTIVE A PITCHED ROOF PORTAL FRAME SHOULD HAVE AS LOW A PITCH AS PRACTICAL TO
MINIMISE SPREAD AT THE KNEE OF THE PORTAL FRAME (SPREAD INCREASES WITH THE PITCH OF THE
RAFTERS OF A PORTAL FRAME).
THE COMBINATION OF LOW PITCH STEEL PORTAL FRAMES AND PROFILED STEEL ROOF SHEETING AND
DECKING HAS LED TO THE ADOPTION OF THIS FORM OF STRUCTURE, PARTICULARLY FOR SINGLE- BAY
STOREY BUILDINGS.
A PORTAL FRAME IS DISTINGUISHED BY THE RIGID CONNECTION OF THE RAFTERS TO THE POSTS OF THE
FRAME SO THAT UNDER LOAD MOMENTS ARE DISTRIBUTED THROUGH THE RAFTER AND THE POST.
PORTAL FRAMES WITH A SPAN OF UPTO15 m ARE DEFINED AS SHORT SPAN, FRAMES WITH A SPAN OF 16 m
TO 35 m AS MEDIUM SPAN AND FRAMES WITH A SPAN OF 36 m TO 60 m AS LONG SPAN.
Cantilevered truss
SPAN 8 Mts
SPAN 12 Mts
HOWE TRUSS &VALLEN TRUSS WITH VERTICALS
DETAILS
STANCHEON
TROLLEY
MOVING ON
CHANNELS
PROVIDED ON
BOTH SIDE OF
THE TRUSS
SPAN - 18Mts
DETAILS OF THE
ROOF TRUSS
STANCHEON
DETAILS AT THE
HORIZONTAL
SUPPORTS