Semiconductors

What is a Semi-conductor?
Asemiconductoris

a
material
which haselectrical conductivity
between that of aconductorsuch as
copper and that of aninsulatorsuch
as glass. Semiconductors are the
foundation of modernelectronics,
includingtransistors,solar
cells,light-emitting
diodes(LEDs),quantum dots, digital
and analogintegrated circuits.

Transistor

Solar Cell

LED

Quantum Dots

Digital and Analogintegrated circuits

The

modern understanding of the

properties of a semiconductor
relies
onquantum
physicsto
explain
the
movement
ofelectronsandholesinside
alattice. An increased knowledge
of semiconductor materials and
fabrication processes has made
possible continuing increases in the
complexity and speed ofintegrated
semiconductor devices.

Common

semiconducting materials
are crystalline solids, but amorphous
and
liquid
semiconductors
are
known. These include hydrogenated
amorhous silicon and mixtures of
arsenic, selenium and tellurium in a
variety proportions. Such compounds
share with better known semi
conductors intermediate conductivity
and a rapid variation of conductivity
with temperature, as well as
occasional negative resistance.

Variable conductivity
A pure semiconductor is a poor electrical
conductor as a consequence of having just the
right number of electrons to completely fill
itsvalence bonds. Through various techniques
(e.g.,dopingorgating), the semiconductor
can be modified to have an excess of electrons
(becoming ann-type semiconductor) or a
deficiency of electrons (becoming ap-type
semiconductor).
In
both
cases,
the
semiconductor
becomes
much
more
conductive (the conductivity can be increased
by one million fold or more). Semiconductor
devices exploit this effect to shape electrical
current.

The

electronic properties and the

conductivity of a semi conductor
can be changed in a controlled
manner by adding very small
quantities of other elements, called
dopants, to the intrinsic material.
In crystalline silicon typically this is
achieved by adding impurities of
boron or phosphorus to the melt
and then allowing the melt to
solidify into crystal. This process is
called doping.

Depletion
When
doped
semiconductors
arejoined to metals,to different
semiconductors, andto the same
semiconductor with different doping,
the resulting junction often strips the
electron excess or deficiency out
from the semiconductor near the
junction.
Thisdepletion
regionis
rectifying (only allowing current to
flow in one direction), and used to
further shape electrical currents in
semiconductor devices.

Energetic electrons travel far

Electrons can be excited across the
energyband gap of a semiconductor
by various means. These electrons
can carry their excess energy over
distance
scales
ofmicrometresbefore
dissipating
their
energy
into
heat

a
significantly longer distance than is
possible in metals. This property is
essential to the operation of, e.
g.,bipolar
junction
transistorsandsolar cells.

Light emission
In
certain
semiconductors,
excited
electrons can relax by emitting light
instead
of
producing
heat.
These
semiconductors
are
used
in
the
construction oflight emitting diodesand
fluorescentquantum dots.
Thermal energy conversion
Semiconductors have largethermoelectric
power
factorsmaking
them
useful
inthermoelectric generators, as well as
highthermoelectric figures of meritmaking
them useful inthermoelectric coolers.

Such

disordered materials lack the

rigid
crystalline
structure
of
conventional semiconductors such
as silicon and are generally used in
thin film structures, which are less
demanding for as concerns the
electronic quality of the material
and thus relatively insensitive to
impurities and radiation damage.
Organic semiconductors, that is,
organic materials with properties
resembling
conventional
semiconductors, are also known.

Organic semiconductors
OLED(Organic

Light Emitting

Diode)

OFET(Organic

transistor)

field-effect

These

semiconductors are
somewhat biodegradable and
environmental friendly
Silicon is used to create most
semiconductors commercially.
Dozens of other materials are used,
including germanium, gallium
arsenide, and silicon carbide. A
pure semiconductor is often called
an intrinsic semiconductor.

End of Log