variables

QUALITATIVE
NOMINAL

ORDINAL

QUANTITATIVE
INTERVAL

RATIO

DISCRITE CONTINOUS

MEASUREMENT

An integrative process of

determining the amount (or

intensity) of information
about person, event or
object of interest.
Process of observing and
recording the observations.
2

Scales

The process of assigning a set of

descriptors to represent the range of
possible responses to a question about
a particular object.
Scaling is the assignment of objects to
numbers according to a rule.

It is a measure in which a
researcher captures the intensity,
direction, level or potency of a variable
construct.
3

 Order: refers to the ability to know if

one quantity is greater than, equal to,

or less than another quantity.

Equal intervals: means that the

possible scores are each an equal
distance from each other.

Absolute zero: refers to a point where

none of the quantity is present. or

absence of the value, where a score of
zero can be assigned.
Magnitude: Quantity
4

if

we hear that a person has no

amount of money in his pocket
we understand the zero value of
the amount.
Prices of college text books are
zero ($0 represents no cost)
Length of wall is zero, means of
no wall
5

Measurement

PHYSICAL

Age, Weight, Height etc.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
Attitudes and Intelligence,
SOCIAL
Leadership ability, status
6

Levels of Measurement
The data we collect can be
represented on one of FOUR
types of scales:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

NOMINAL
The name 'Nominal' comes

from the Latin nomen,

meaning 'name' and
nominal data are items
which are differentiated by
a simple naming system.
8

NOMINAL: (NAME

NOMIAL)

Relating to names i.e. names

are assigned to objects or
labels. Nominal items are usually
categorical, w.o. any order or
having no numerical value.
E.g., if one collects people's softdrink licking and options
provided as
Pepsi, Coke, Mountain Dew, etc.
9

NOMINAL

The crudest of measurement

scales, classifies individuals,

companies, products, brands
or other entities into
categories where no order is
implied.
10

Example
Nominally scale the nationality of
individuals in a group of tourists to a country
during a certain year.
We could nominally scale this variable in the
following mutually exclusive and

collectively exhaustive categories.

American
Russian
Chinese
Arabian

Japanese
Malaysian
German
Other

11

EXAMPLES
University departments,

Vegetables, Fruits, Textile

factories, Ice-cream
flavours, Oil brands,
Countries, Birth places,
Political affiliations
12

If

NOMINAL

they're numerical, the

numbers have no meaning
(just "name" ).
H # 15 and H # 32 we cant
say house 32 is greater than
house 15, because it is a
higher number.
13

EXAMPLES
For example: (Gender categorized as )
Gender:
1 = Female,
2 = Male

Marital status:

1 = Single, 2 = Married, 3 = Divorced, 4 =

Widowed

Make of car: 1 = Ford, 2 = NISSAN . . .

Blood groups ( A+, AB+, A-

Diseased or Healthy
Races, Cartoon Characters, Brands of
cigarettes, Political Parties.

14

Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is one that allows the

researcher to assign subjects to certain

categories or groups.

What is your department?

O Marketing
O Maintenance
O Production
O Servicing
O Sales
O Public Relations
O Accounting
O Finance
O Personnel
O Finance
15

NOTE
Note that nominal scale will

allow computation of the

numbers and percentages of
respondents that fit into
them.
We can use BAR and PIE
graphs
16 16

Respondent's Sex

Valid

Male
Female
Total

Frequency
636
881
1517

Percent
41.9
58.1
100.0

Race of Respondent

Valid

White
Black
Other
Total

Frequency
1264
204
49
1517

Percent
83.3
13.4
3.2
100.0

17

18

2:Ordinal Scale

Data measured can be placed into

categories, and these categories
can be ordered or ranked , i.e.
differences b/w data values are
meaningful and also shows less than
or more than, but not by how much
(mag.).

Data can be ranked / arranged

(such as low to high or most to
least)
19

Ordinal data, has no

magnitude, it has an ability
to know one is greater than
or less than to another
one.
or order from greatest to
lowest
20

Ordinal variables allow us to rank order

the items we measure in terms of which
has less and which has more of the
quality represented by the variable, but
still they do not allow us to say "how
much more." A typical example of an
ordinal variable is the socioeconomic
status of families. For example, we know
that upper-middle is higher than middle
but we cannot say that it is, for example,
18% higher.
21

The order matters. So, 1st is now

ahead of 2nd. But, we don't know
anything about the distance between
the numbers. The space between 1st
and 2nd could be huge, but the space
between 2nd and 3rd could be small. If
you think about finish times for a race,
you have this kind of data. The one
who finishes first is first, but we don't
know by how much they beat the one
who was second.
22

In ordinal measurement the attributes can be

rank-ordered. Here, distances between
attributes do not have any meaning. For
example, on a survey you might code
Educational Attainment as 0=less than H.S.;
1=some H.S.; 2=H.S. degree; 3=some
college; 4=college degree; 5=post college. In
this measure, higher numbers mean more
education. But is distance from 0 to 1 same
as 3 to 4? Of course not. The interval
between values is not interpretable in an
ordinal measure.
23

Example:

The 50 states in order of population:

1 = California
2 = Texas
3 = New York
. . . 50 = Wyoming
EX: Good/Bad
Cancer staging
Income ( L M H )
Course grades A, B, C, D, or F

24

 When a market researcher asks

you to rank 4 types of juices from

most flavourful to least flavourful,
he/she is asking you to create an
ordinal scale of preference.
You should rank the most
important item as 1, the next in
importance a 2, and so on, until
you have ranked each of them 1, 2,
3, or 4.
25

When the respondent are asked to rank

order their taste preferences of juices,
they assign ordinal values to them as
Order of
preferences

Mango
Pine apple
Strawberry
Mix-Fruit

1
3
4
2

4
2
1
3

21
1 4
3 2
4 3

26

Example 2
Rank the following five

characteristics in a job in terms

of how important they are for
you.
You should rank the most
important item as 1, the next in
importance a 2, and so on, until
you have ranked each of them 1,
2, 3, 4, or 5.
27

Example 2 (Cont.)
Job Characteristic

The opportunity provided by the job to:

1. Interacts with others
2. Use different skills
3. Complete a task to the end
4. Serve others
5. Work independently

Ranking
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____

28

Example 2 (Cont.)
We can see that the ordinal scale

provides more information than the

nominal scale. Even though
differences in the ranking of objects,
persons are clearly known, we do not
know their magnitude.
This deficiency is overcome by
interval scaling.
29

30

Examples
Ranking of teams in a tournament
Socioeconomic class
Occupational status
Students of a university are classified
such as Freshman, Sophomore,
Junior, or Senior.
Alternatively, a numeric code could
be used for the class standing
variable (e.g. 1 = Freshman, 2 =
Sophomore, 3=junior 4=Senior).

31

3:Interval Scale

Interval data (integer) is

measured along a scale in

which each position is
equidistant from one another.
This allows for the distance
between two pairs to be
equivalent in some way.
32

It possesses both

magnitude
and equal intervals, but no
absolute zero. The zero point on
an interval scale is arbitrary and
is not a true zero. Temperature,
however, has no absolute zero
because there is (theoretically)
no point where temperature
does not exist.
33

This scale has a starting and

terminating points that is divided

into equally spaced
units/intervals.
The starting and terminating
points and the number of
intervals between them are
arbitrary and vary from scale to
scale.
34

Starting Point or Freezing Point

00 C / 320 F
Terminating Point / boiling Point
1000 C or 2120 F
The gap b/w freezing and
boiling points is dividing into
100 equally spaced intervals,
known degrees

35

The difference between

500 and 600 is the same as

the difference between 200
and 300. But, we can't
make ratio statements
(like 60 degrees is twice
as hot as 30 degrees).
36

If the temperature

today is 300 degrees

and yesterday it was
100, we could not say
that it now is three
times as warm.
37

As the starting and

terminating points are

arbitrary, they are not
absolute, that is why we
cant say that 600 C is twice
as hot as 300 C or 300 F is
three times hotter than 100
F.
38

It is possible to add or

subtract a constant to
all of the scale values
without affecting the
form of the scale but
one cannot multiply or
divide the values
39

Here we know that each

degree is the same

distance apart and we can
easily tell if one
temperature is greater
than, equal to, or less than
another not in double form.
40

We cannot speak of 50F

being twice as hot as 25F

since the corresponding
temperatures on the
centigrade scale, 10C
and -3.9C, are not in the
ratio 2:1.
41

We can say that a

temperature of 50
degrees is higher
than a temperature of
25 degrees.
42

IQ: There is a meaningful difference

of 75 points b/w an IQ score of 75

and 150 of two students.

we could not say that Daniya is

twice as intelligent as Maha, even
when their results in an intelligence
test were 150 and 75 respectively.

43

The elapsed time b/w 3 and

6 A.M. equals the time b/w 4
and 7 A.M. one can not say
however, 6A.M. is twice as
late as 3 A.M. because zero
time is an arbitrary origin.
44

Examples
Level of happiness, rated from 1 to

10.
Temperature, in degrees &
Fahrenheit.
IQS
Satisfaction level on a 7 point scale,
from Dissatisfied to Satisfied,
Blood pressure
Attitude / opinion measure (Likert
scale)
45

 It is assumed to have equidistant

points between each of the scale

elements. This means that we can
interpret differences in the
distance (interval between numbers)
along the scale. We contrast this
to an ordinal scale where we can
only talk about differences in
order, not differences in the
degree of order.
46

When you are asked to rate

your satisfaction with a piece

of software on a 7 point
scale, from Dissatisfied to
Satisfied, you are using an
interval scale.

47

Example 3a
Indicate the extent to which you

agree with the following statements

as they relate to your job, by circling
the appropriate number against each,
using the scale given below.
strongly disagree 1, Disagree 2
Neither Agree Nor Disagree 3
Agree 4, Strongly Agree 5.
48

Example 3a (Cont.)
The following opportunities

offered by the job are very

important to me:
Interacting with others 1

Using a number of
different skills

Completing a task
from beginning to end

Serving others

Working independently 1

5
49

Example 3a (Cont.)
Suppose that the employees circle the

numbers 3, 1, 2, 4, and 5 for the five items.

The magnitude of difference represented
by the space between points 1 and 2 on
the scale is the same as the magnitude of
difference represented by the space
between points 4 and 5, or between any
other two points. Any number can be
added to or subtracted from the numbers
on the scale, still retaining the magnitude
of the difference.
50

Example 3a (Cont.)
If we add 6 to the five points on

the scale, the interval scale will

have the numbers 7, 8,.., 11
( instead of 1 to 5).
The magnitude of the difference
between 7 and 8 is still the same
as the magnitude of the
difference between 9 and 10. It
has an arbitrary origin.
51

Example 3b

Circle the number that represents your feelings at this

particular moment best. There are no right or wrong
answers. Please answer every question.

1. I invest more in my work than I get out of it

I disagree completely
completely
2.

I agree

I exert myself too much considering what I get back

in return

I disagree completely
completely
3.

I agree

For the efforts I put into the organization, I get

much in return

I disagree completely
completely

I agree

52

4:Ratio Scale

Same

as Interval, but
Ratio has a true zero or
fixed starting point.
The difference b/w the
intervals is always
measured from a zero
starting point.

53

Responses to quantity

questions are a number,

which gives the amount
of a characteristic.

What is your age? 60

54

A scale designed to

measure height would be

a ratio scale, because the
zero point on the scale
represents the absence of
the height that is, no
height.
55

Examples:

Distance, weight, Height, Salary

Number of phone calls

Patients in a hospital

Road accidents

Share prices

Absenteeism
56

It has differences b/w units

( 1inch., 1pound etc.) and a
true zero and also a true ratio
b/w values. e.g. If one person
can lift 200lbs and another can
lift 100 lbs, then the ratio b/w
them is 2 to 1.or The first
person can lift twice as much
as the second person.
57

Marias college record

shows 36 credit hours
earned, while Kirans
record shows 72 credit
hours earned. Kiran
has twice as many
credit hours earned as
Maria.
58

Data can be altered so

that they fit into a
different category.
Income is a ratio but if
income is classified as
LMH then ratio variable
becomes an ordinal
variable.

59

The differences between scales

60 60

Data Level, Operations,

and Statistical Methods
Data Level

Meaningful Operations

Statistical
Methods

Nominal

Classifying and Counting

Nonparametric

Ordinal

All of the above plus

Ranking

Nonparametric

Interval

All of the above plus

Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, and Division

Parametric

All of the above

Ratio

Parametric

61

Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

Name

Mutuallyexclusive

Ordered

Equal
interval

Gender,
Yes/No

Class rank,
ratings

+ abs. 0

Days of wk., Inches, dollars

temp.
62

Data Types
Order

Interval

Origin

Nominal none

none

none

Ordinal

unequal

none

Interval yes

equal

none

Ratio

equal

zero

yes

yes

63

PRACTICE
Discrete or Continuous ?

mg of tar in cigarettes

Continuous

number of people in a car

Discrete

high to low temperature in

any day
Continuous

weight

Continuous

time

number of children in the

average
family
Discrete

Continuous

Nominal / ordinal / interval /

ratio ?

Avg / above avg / below

avg
Ordinal
Nicotine contents of cig.s
Ratio
Todays temp. in Celsius
Interval
Colors of M&F candies
Nominal
Grades (A, B, C, D, F)
Ordinal

Exam scores
Ratio

64

Summary
Levels of Measurement

Nominal - categories only

Ordinal
Interval

Ratio

- categories with some order

- differences but no natural
starting point
- differences and a natural starting
point
65

Properties of the Four Scales

66

QUESTION CODING
If you are planning to analysis your
data by computer, they will need to be
coded prior to entry. For quantity
questions, actual numbers can be
used as codes. For other questions,
you will need to design a coding
scheme. Whenever possible you
should establish the coding scheme
prior to collection data and
incorporate it into your questionnaire.
67

DATA LAYOUT

Some primary data collection

methods such as computer

aided personal interviewing,

Computer aided telephone
interviewing and on line
questionnaires can
automatically enter and save data
to a computer file at the time of
collection.

68

For

other data collection

methods, you will have to
prepare and enter your data
for computer analysis.
As you are entering your
own data into SPSS / PASW
one case (row) at a time and
each column usually
represent a single variable.

69

DATA INPUT
As part of a marketing interview
survey we need to discover
which of four products ( Tomato
ketchup, Brown sauce, Soya
sauce and Vinegar) have been
purchased within the last month
by consumers. we therefore need
to collect four data items from
each respondent
70

Tomato ketchup purchased with in the last

month? Yes / No
Brown Sauce purchased with in the last
month?
Yes / No
Soya Sauce purchased with in the last
month?
Yes / No
Vinegar purchased with in the last month?
Yes / No

71

 Each of these data

items is a separate
variables. However, the
data can be collected
by using one question.
72

Q1: Which of the following items have you purchased

with in the last month?
Item
Purchased Not Purchased Not Sure
Tomato Ketchup

Brown Sauce

Soya Sauce

Vinegar

73

This is known as multiple-dichotomy coding

The data collected from each respondent will form
four separate variables in the SPSS by using
numerical codes
( Purchased=1 Not purchased=2 Not-sure=3)

74

CODIN MISSING DATA

Each variable for each case in your data set should
have a code, even if no data have been collected.
The choice of code is up to you. A missing data code
is used to indicate why data are missing. Main
reasons for missing data are four.
The were not required, perhaps because of a skip
generated by a filter question in a survey
The question was not answered as the respondent
had no opinion( no response)
The data were not available for some other reason
Leaving part of a question in a survey blank implies
an answer; in such cases the data are not classified
as missing
75

Developing Scales
The

four types of scales that can be

used to measure the operationally
defined dimensions and elements of a
variable are:
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio
scales.
It is necessary to examine the methods
of scaling (assigning numbers or
symbols) to elicit the attitudinal
responses of subjects toward objects,
events, or persons.
76

Developing Scales
Categories of attitudinal
scales: (not to be confused
with the four different types of
scales)

Rating Scales
The Ranking Scales
The

77

Developing Scales
Rating

scales have several response

categories and are used to elicit responses
with regard to the object, event, or person
studied.
Ranking scales, make comparisons between
or among objects, events, or persons and
elicit the preferred choices and ranking
among them.
First we rate

and then we rank

78

Rating Scales
The following

rating scales are

often used in organizational

research.
1.Dichotomous scale
2.Category scale
3.Likert scale
4.Numerical scale
79

Rating Scales
Semantic differential scale
6. Itemized rating scale
7. Fixed or constant sum rating
scale
8. Stapel scale
9. Graphic rating scale
10.Consensus scale
5.

80 80

Dichotomous Scale
Is used to elicit a Yes or No answer

(i.e. just two responses), called

binary or dichotomous
(Note that a nominal scale is used
to elicit the response)
Example
Do you own a car?
Yes
No
81

Category Scale
It uses multiple items (i.e. more than

two) to elicit a single response.

Example 5
Where in Jordan do you reside?
Amman
Mafraq
Irbid
Zarqa
Other

82

Likert Scale
Is designed to examine how

strongly
subjects agree or disagree with
statements on a 5-point scale as
following:
_________________________________
Strongly
Neither Agree
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Nor Disagree
Agree Agree
1
2
3
4
5
______________________________________________________

83

Likert Scale
This is an Interval scale and the

differences in responses
between any two points on the
scale remain the same.

84 84

Semantic Differential Scale

We use this scale when several

attributes are identified at the

extremes of the scale. For
instance, the scale would
employ such terms as:
Good Bad
Strong Weak
Hot Cold
85 85

Semantic Differential Scale

This scale is treated as an

Interval

scale.
Example 6
What is your opinion on your supervisor?
Responsive--------------Unresponsive
Beautiful-----------------Ugly
Courageous-------------Timid

86

Numerical Scale
Is similar to the semantic differential

scale, with the difference that numbers

on a 5- points or 7-points scale are
provided, as illustrated in the following
example:
How pleased are you with your new job?
Extremely
Extremlely
pleased
5 4
3
2
1 displeased
87

Itemized Rating Scale

A 5-point or 7-point scale is provided for each item

and the respondent states the appropriate number on
the side of each item. This uses an Interval Scale.
Example 7(i)

Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your
response number on the line by each item.
1
2
3
4
5
Very unlikely unlikely
neither
likely
very likely
unlikely nor
likely
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------I will be changing my job in the near future.

88

Itemized Rating Scale

Note that the above is

balanced
rating with a neutral point.
The unbalance rating scale
which does not have a neutral
point, will be presented in the
following example.

89 89

Itemized Rating Scale

Example 7(ii)

Circle the number that is closest to how

you feel for the item below:
Not at all
interested

Somewhat
interested

Moderately
interested

Very much
interested

1
2
3
4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------How would you rate your interest
1
2
3
4
In changing current organizational
Policies?
90

Fixed or Constant Sum Scale

The respondents are asked to

distribute a
given number of points across various items.

Example : In choosing a toilet soap, indicate the importance

you attach to each of the following five aspects by allotting
points for each to total 100 in all.
Fragrance ----Color
----Shape
----Size
----_________
Total points 100
This is more in the nature of an ordinal scale.
91

Stapel Scale
This scale simultaneously measures

both the direction and intensity of the

attitude toward the items under study.
The characteristic of interest to the
study is placed at the center and a
numerical scale ranging, say from +3
to 3, on either side of the item as
illustrated in the following example:
92 92

Example 8: Stapel Scale

State how you would rate your supervisors abilities with
respect to each of the characteristics mentioned below, by
circling the appropriate number.
+3
+3
+3
+2
+2
+2
+1
+1
+1
Adopting modern
Product
Interpersonal
Technology
Innovation
Skills
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-2
-3
-3
-3

93

Graphic Rating Scale

A graphical representation

helps the respondents to

indicate on this scale their
answers to a particular
question by placing a mark at
the appropriate point on the
line, as in the following
example:
94

Graphic Rating Scale

Example 9

On a scale of 1 to 10, how

would you rate your supervisor?
10
5

95

Ranking Scales
Are used to tap preferences

between two or among more

objects or items (ordinal in
nature). However, such ranking
may not give definitive clues
to some of the answers sought.

96

Ranking Scales

Example 10
There are 4 product lines, the manager seeks
information that would help decide which product line
should get the most attention.
Assume:
35% of respondents choose the 1st product.
25% of respondents choose the 2nd product.
20% of respondents choose the 3rd product.
20% of respondents choose the 4th product.
100%
97 97

Ranking Scales

The manager cannot conclude that the first

product is the most preferred. Why?
Because 65% of respondents did not choose
that product. We have to use alternative
methods like Forced Choice, Paired
Comparisons, and the Comparative Scale.
We will describe the Forced Choice as an
example.

98 98

Forced Choice
The forced choice enables respondents to

rank objects relative to one another,

among the alternative provided. This is
easier for the respondents, particularly if
the number of choice to be ranked is
limited in number.

99 99

Forced Choice

Example 11
Rank the following newspapers that you would
like to subscribe to in the order of preference,
assigning 1 for the most preferred choice and 5
for the least preferred.
------ -------- --- ---------- -------100100

Goodness of Measures
It is important to make sure that

the instrument that we develop to

measure a particular concept is
accurately measuring the
variable, and we are actually
measured the concept that we
set out to measure.
101

Goodness of Measures
We need to assess the

goodness of
the measures developed. That is,
we need to be reasonably sure that
the instruments we use in our
research do indeed measure the
variables they are supposed to, and
that they measure them accurately.

102

Goodness of Measures

103

Goodness of Measures
How can we ensure that the

measures developed are

reasonably good?
First an item analysis of the
responses to the questions tapping
the variable is done.
Then the reliability and validity of
the measures are established.
104

Item Analysis
Item analysis

is done to see if the items in

the instrument belong there or not. Each
item is examined for its ability to discriminate
between those subjects whose total scores
are high, and those with low scores.
In item analysis, the means between the
high-score group and the low-score group
are tested to detect significant differences
through the t-values.
105

Item Analysis
The items with a high t-value

are then included in the

instrument. Thereafter, tests for
the reliability of the instrument
are done and the validity of the
measure is established.
106

Reliability

Reliability of measure indicates extent to which

it is without bias and hence ensures consistent

measurement across time (stability) and across
the various items in the instrument (internal
consistency).

107

Stability

Stability: ability of a measure to remain

the same over time, despite
uncontrollable testing conditions or the
state of the respondents themselves.

TestRetest Reliability: The reliability

coefcient obtained with a repetition of the
same measure on a second occasion.
Parallel-Form Reliability: Responses on
two comparable sets of measures tapping
the same construct are highly correlated.
84
108
108

Test-Retest Reliability

When a questionnaire containing some items

that are supposed to measure a concept is
administered to a set of respondents now, and
again to the same respondents, say several
weeks to 6 months later, then the correlation
between the scores obtained is called the testretest coefficient.
The higher the coefficient is, the better the testretest reliability, and consequently, the stability
of the measure across time.
109109

Parallel-Form Reliability
When

responses on two comparable

sets of measures tapping the same
construct are highly correlated, we have
parallel-form reliability.
Both forms have similar items and the
same response format, the only changes
being the wording and the order or
sequence of the questions.
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Parallel-Form Reliability

What we try to establish in the parallel-form is

the error variability resulting from wording and
ordering of the questions.
If two such comparable forms are highly
correlated (say 8 and above), we may be fairly
certain that the measures are reasonably
reliable, with minimal error variance caused by
wording, ordering, or other factors.

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Internal Consistency

Internal Consistency of Measures is

indicative of the homogeneity of the items in the
measure that tap the construct.
Inter-item Consistency Reliability: This is a test
of the consistency of respondents answers to all
the items in a measure. The most popular test of
inter-item consistency reliability is the Cronbachs
coefficient alpha.
Split-Half Reliability: Split-half reliability reflects
the correlations between two halves of an
instrument.
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Validity

Validity tests show how well an instrument that

is developed measures the particular concept
it is intended to measure. Validity is concerned
with whether we measure the right concept.
Several types of validity tests are used to test
the goodness of measures: content validity,
criterion-related validity, and construct
validity.

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Content Validity

Content validity ensures that the measure

includes an adequate and representative set of
items that tap the concept.
The more the scale items represent the domain
of the concept being measured, the greater the
content validity.
In other words, content validity is a function of
how well the dimensions and elements of a
concept have been delineated.

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Criterion-Related Validity

Criterion-Related Validity is established when

the measure differentiates individuals on a
criterion it is expected to predict. This can be
done by establishing what is called concurrent
validity or predictive validity.
Concurrent validity is established when the
scale discriminates individuals who are known
to be different; that is, they should score
differently on the instrument as in the following
example.
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Criterion-Related Validity

Example 12
If a measure of work ethic is developed and
administered to a group of welfare recipients,
the scale should differentiate those who are
enthusiastic about accepting a job and glad of a
opportunity to be off welfare, from those who
would not want to work even when offered a job.

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Example 12 (Cont.)

Those with high work ethic values would not

want to be on welfare and would ask for
employment. Those who are low on work ethic
values, might exploit the opportunity to survive
on welfare for as long as possible.
If both types of individuals have the same
score on the work ethic scale, then the test
would not be a measure of work ethic, but of
something else.
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Construct Validity

Construct Validity testifies to how well the results

obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories
around which the test is designed. This is assessed
through convergent and discriminant validity.
Convergent validity is established when the scores
obtained with two different instruments measuring the
same concept are highly correlated.
Discriminant validity is established when, based on
theory, two variables are predicted to be uncorrelated,
and the scores obtained by measuring them are indeed
empirically found to be so.

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Goodness of Measures

Goodness of Measures is established through

the different kinds of validity and reliability.
The results of any research can only be as good
as the measures that tap the concepts in the
theoretical framework.
Table 7.2 summarizes the kinds of validity
discussed in the lecture.

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Validity

.
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