INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 1

GEC 211.
Topic :Introduction to circuit theory
Highlight : Charge and current,
Resistor,
Independent and dependent sources,
Terms and definitions,
Ohms law,
Kirchhoffs circuit laws: Kirchhoffs current and
voltage laws,
Loop and mesh current analysis,
Nodal or junction analysis,
Source transformation. Examples/ tutorial questions.

 An electric circuit is a closed path

commencing at a point in space and
terminating at the same point.
The term loop or closed loop or mesh may
be used to describe the closed path.
A good knowledge of the fundamentals of
circuit theory facilitates a better grasp of
Electrical and electronics subjects including
Communication Engineering.

Charge and Current

Charge is a fundamental and characteristic

property of the elementary particles that
make up matter. Electrons, protons and
neutrons are the particles contained in a
matter.

 An atom is described as having a positively

charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
negatively charged electrons, a neutral atom
has an equal number of both the protons and
electrons.
Substances are classified on the basis of the
freedom of movement of the electric charges
within them.
We have conductors which allow free flow of
electron in it,
Insulators where the electrons are rigidly
bounded to the nucleus such that it is not
easily detachable by electric field.
In between the conductors and the insulator
are the semi-conductors whose properties fall

The charge in a conductor is denoted by

and the unit of charge is Coulomb (C).
The rate of change of charges or flow of
charges in a conductor is termed current.
The symbol of current is with unit of
measurement given as
RESISTOR
Rate of flow of current in a substance
depends on the resistance of substance.
Some substances allow unhindered flow of
current through them, others offer
opposition.
The opposition offers to the flow of current
in a substance is what is called a

The substance with this property is called

resistor.
A resistor is linear if its voltage-current
relationship is described by a straight
line, while a non-linear resistor has curve
different from the straight line.
Non-linear resistors have wide applications
in negative resistance devices and
examples include rectification, in limiting
current and voltage, frequency
multiplication etc.

where is called conductance, the reciprocal

of resistance.
If, a linear resistance is said to be a short

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT SOURCES

The figure below depicts an arbitrary network
N excited by a source of electric energy. If the
prescribed potential energy is maintained at
a value, say V, the source of energy may be
designated as a constant voltage source. This
potential is supposed to be unaffected by the
value of current flowing into the network. On
the other hand, if the source current is
maintained irrespective of the potential
difference, such a source is called a constant
current source.

 An independent source is a source (current

or voltage) whose value is not a function
of an external condition i.e. its value is not
dependent on the value of another
quantity within the circuit.
If the current or voltage of a source
depends on the voltage or current
elsewhere in the circuit, it is referred to as
a dependent or controlled source.
Controlled sources are often found in
electronic circuits.
They may be either voltage or current and
may be controlled by another voltage or
current as the case may be.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Conductor: this is a material with relatively
high conductivity. Such material allows
charges to flow freely on them.
Circuit: an electric circuit is a path of
electric current or it is a conducting path or a
system of parts through which an electric
current is intended to flow.
Circuit element: any individual constituent
or component of circuit with two terminals by
which it can be connected to another
constituents or components of the circuit.
Branch: a group of elements (usually in
series) having two terminals.
Network: An interconnection of electric
circuit elements or branches.

 Lumped Network: a network in which

physically separate resistors, inductors,
capacitors, etc. can be represented. The
values of the resistance, inductance etc.
are usually lumped together.
Distributed Network: Resistance,
Inductance, etc. are represented as
distributed parameters. They are
electrically separated and represented as
separate elements.
Passive Network: Network containing
circuit element without any source.
Resistance, inductance and capacitance
are passive elements.
Active Network: network containing

Linear Element: element in which the relation

between current and voltage is linear.

Linear Network: differential equation relating

the instantaneous current or voltage is a
linear equation with constant coefficients.
Loop: this is formed by a set of branches
forming a closed path in the network. If any
of the branches is omitted, the remaining
branches cease to form a closed path.
Mesh : if the loop contains no other loop, it
may be referred as a mesh. A major loop may
contain more than one closed path. If there is
only one closed path, such is better referred
to as a mesh.

Node or Junction : a terminal of any branch of

network , or a terminal common to two or more
branches.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC

CIRCUITS
Electric circuit possess four fundamental
electrical properties, namely resistance,
inductance, capacitance and leakage
conductance.
Theoretically, pure resistors, inductors, and
capacitors are conceived for analysis.
A resistor may possess apart from resistance
certain amount of residual inductance and
capacitance as well.
Similarly, an inductor may possess, apart
from the inductance, certain amount of

 Circuit elements are called bilateral if the

voltage-current relationship remains
unchanged when the polarity of the applied
voltage and the direction of the current are
reversed.
If however, the relation between the current
and voltage is not the same on reversal of
the direction, the circuit elements are called
unilateral, e.g. Vacuum and semi-conductor
diodes.
Voltage and current sources are active
elements and are independent sources if the
current and voltage in the circuit
respectively do not affect the voltage and
current of other sources in the circuit.

An ideal voltage source has a constant

amplitude voltage at the output terminals
irrespective of the magnitude of the current
supplied by it.
Similarly, there is no power dissipation in
the source i.e. its equivalent series
resistance is zero.
In the case of practical voltage source
connected in a circuit as shown in the
diagram below, the terminal voltage is .
If the current supplied by the generator is ,
then the terminal voltage available for the
load is given by the relation;

OHMS LAW
When the current in a conductor is steady and
there is no EMF (electromotive force) within
the conductor, the value of the potential
difference (voltage) across the terminals of
the conductor is proportional to the current,
i.e.
Where V is the potential difference and I is the
current.

The coefficient of proportionality R is the

resistance of the conductor. For alternating
current, R is replaced by Z the impedance of
the a.c. circuit.
The law could also be written as
Where
Similarly, for a.c circuits,
Where

KIRCHHOFFS CIRCUIT LAWS

Two fundamental circuit laws mostly used are;
Kirchhoffs current law (KVL) and
Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL)
Kirchhoffs current law: the algebraic sum of all
the instantaneous current at a junction or node
in an electric circuit is zero.
Kirchhoffs Voltage law: the algebraic sum of
the instantaneous voltages acting around any
closed path in an electric circuit is zero. Or the
arithmetic sum of the voltage drops around a
closed path is equal to the arithmetic sum of
the voltage rises around the path.

STEADY STATE D.C CCT ANALYSIS

Circuits can be resolved by
The Direct Method
Used basically for simpler circuits
Includes:- Ohms Law, Laws of
resistors( series & Parallel
combinations, Voltage Divider Rule,
Loop Analysis, Nodal Analysis,
Superposition , Compensation,
Reciprocity Theorems , etc.
Network Reduction Method
Used for both simple and complex
circuits.
Includes :- Delta- Star Transformation,
Star-Delta Transformation, Thevenins
theorem, and Nortons Theorem

Kirchhoffs Laws
A. Kirchhoffs Current Law [KCL]:
At any junction in an electric cct, the total current
flowing towards
that junction is equal to the total current flowing
away from the
junction. i.e
OR
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the
Illustration
currents
at aI point (or junction ) is zero.
I1 I meeting
0
1

I
4

From the fig.

I1+ I2+ I3+

I4+ I5=0

Note that the currents are ALL going into the

point 0

B. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law[KVL]:

In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of
the
voltage drops around the loop equals the resultant
e.m.f acting
in that loop.
OR
The algebraic sum of the product of currents and
resistance in each
Of the conductors in any closed path(mesh) in a
Algebraic sum takes cognizance of the
network
and the
polarities

algebraic sum of the e.m.fs in the same path is zero.

DETERMINATION OF VOLTAGE SIGN

1. Sign of Battery E.M.F
E
A

--

Fall in Voltage
Fig
I

Fig II

2. Sign of IR drop
we go thru a resistor in the same direction as the current,
e is a fall ( decrease / drop) in potential. Current flows from
er potential to lower potential
Examples
Determine the value of the e.m.f E in the figure below.

Applying KVL, choosing any direction of choice

-4 -2 -4 +3 -5 +6 -3 + E =0
E=9V
2. Use kirchhoffs law to determine the current flowing in
each branch of the network shown

APPLICATION OF DETERMINANT & CRAMMERS RULE

TO SOLVING NETWORK EQUATIONS
Given a 2*2 matrix,

The determinant , represented as

For a third order determinant, the approach is evaluated

as follows :-

The determinant of B

The elements in the first column could also be used.

CRAMMERS RULE

is will be illustrated with an example.

Solve the following simultaneous equations using determina
d crammers rule.

Write out the matrix form

Crammers rule

Therefore ,

Determine the currents in the unbalanced bridge cct in

e figure . Also, det. the p.d across BD and the resistance from
o D.

B
D

The matrix form of the 3 equations is

Therefore,