Programming and

Special Event
Planning
From theory to
practice

Questions for the

day:

What is programming?
Why provide programs?
What do they offer
consumers?
How do programmers
decide what to offer?
How can program theories
be used in practice?
What programming theories
appeal to you? Why?

Programming
definitions:

According to Carpenter & Howe, 1985:

"Programming, a continual process of
planning, implementing, and evaluating leisure
experiences for an individual or a group of
individuals is unique to the body of knowledge
in parks, recreation and leisure services".
According to Kraus, 1997:
"Programming is the process that uses the
human, fiscal and other physical resources of
an agency to provide recreation and leisure
activities and services to community residents
or to members of an organization".
According to Rossman, 1989:
Programming... is the development of leisure
opportunities by manipulating and creating
environments to maximize the probability that
participants will find the satisfaction they seek.

According to Bullaro and Edginton, 1986:

Creating the leisure experience involves
arranging for or assisting people to be placed in
a social, physical, or natural environment. This
may involve planning and organizing,
assembling materials and supplies, arranging
the use of facilities, providing leadership of
other actions that lead to the creation of
opportunities for leisure .
According to Farrell & Lundegren, 1991:
Program.... encompasses a) the activity in
which people participate, b) the facility that
enables the experience to take place, and c)
the leadership that has been responsible for
facilitating this experience.
According to Russell, 1982:
Programs are those magic moments of joyous
participation that occur when the available and
necessary resources have been stirred together
just right by planning. But programs do not just
happen because planning does not just
happen. Planning is organized forethought.
What is your definition of programming?

Why provide
programs? What do
they offer consumers?

Recreation and tourism

experiences provide benefits to
people.
Many people do not know how to
access recreation and tourism
experiences themselves.
Programmers provide recreation
and tourism experiences through
programs which in turn,
provide benefits to consumers.
So the product you are
providing is an experience. You
manufacture that experience in
a program and provide it to
those who need the benefits.

Nature of the
experience (product)
you are providing. p-2123
It is intangible

Each experience is different

It is produced and
consumed at the same time
It is perishable
What does this mean if you
are manufacturing leisure
experiences as a
programmer?

How do
programmers
decide
what
to
Remember there are many strategies
that can be used to decide what programs
offer?
should be offered (p-29).

Look at page 29 for an overview of

recreation and tourism strategies.
What are some of the advantages and
disadvantages of some of these strategies?
Which ones appeal to you?
Note: As practitioners we have been
moving more towards providing programs
WITH people instead of FOR people (p- 30).
Depending on the type of organization you
work for you will likely use a different
approach to programming.
Example: private sector often uses a
marketing approach, public sector often
uses a direct planning approach, not for
profit sector often uses a community
development approach.

How can program

theories be used in
practice?

We develop a process,
which results in a product,
that enables the interaction
of participants to achieve
some benefit through
leisure. We can undertake
this effort in a variety of
manners by using a
cafeteria style, a traditional
approach, programming by
objectives, and others
(DeGraaf, et al., 1999, p:
41).

Theories and
Models:
Help us understand why we do what
we do, or how we do what we do.
Lets discuss a few from Chapt. 3:
Systems theory programmers
input resources (supplies, facility,
instructor, schedule etc.) and use a
process to achieve some outputs
(I.e. leisure experiences).
Benefits driven model (Benefits
Based Management BBM): focus on
the output of programming to be
benefits (individual, social,
economic and environmental).

More theories and

models

Special events model: suggests

that most special events follow a
traditional programming format but
use more of a flow chart of tasks
that need to be completed at
specific times (p.46 examples).
Flow theory: suggests that
programmers should seek to provide
experiences for people that match
their skill level to challenges = flow.
Motivation based theories:
suggest that programmers should
respond to, and provide experiences
that meet people needs.

More theories and

models

Symbolic interaction theory:

suggests that programmers need to
understand participants and human
behavior when designing
experiences. Remembers that
people are a part of the actual
experience.
Sociocultural theory: suggests that
programmers need to understand the
influences that society places on
people and provide experiences that
enhance society.
Comprehensive theory: suggests
that programmers combine a little of
everything into what they do
understanding of human behaviour,
history, sociology, systems theory
etc.)

Theory to
practice

Program theories are the

underlying structure of what
we do as park, recreation and
[tourism] professionals. The
theory we utilize to help us
understand programming
provides the framework on
which we fashion and
accomplish our programming
tasks. The theory we buy into
drives the focus and direction
of our work (DeGraaf et al.,
1999, p-52).

Question

What theories or models

appeal to you?
Why?
How will you use them to
guide your efforts as a
programmer?
Next day Chapter four
What drives programmers
and special event
planners? Think about
homework assignment #1