Science, Society and

Criminolgical Research
&
The Process and Problems
of Criminological
Research
Science is Organized Knowledge
-Herbert Spencer

Thinking about what we

know
We all know a lot of things, right?
Drugs cause crime
Criminal activity in youth causes
criminal activity in adulthood
Men commit more crime than women
Poverty causes crime

Of course, this is too simplistic, right?

How do we know we
know?
These are examples that we dont really
believe anymore, right? We recognize
that they are too simple. At this stage we
recognize that things in life usually arent
that simple.
But, there are things you take for granted,
right? So, how are we certain about
these things and not the preceding?

Individual Based
Knowledge
At this point in our educational and
professional careers were not going to
fall for an oversimplified question like
that, right?
Answers probably include things like:
Systematic observation
Longitudinal/historical perspective

And other very sophisticated reasoning.

Is this the only we learn?

Lets face it though, this isnt really how
we learn is it?
Personnel interpretation plays an
enormous role in how we learn things.
Its the reason we can all see the same
thing, but learn very different things
from it.
Does this type of knowledge have a place
in science?

Knowledge and Science

What do we mean by science?
ScienceA set of logical, systematic,
documented methods for investigating
nature and natural processes
(Bachman and Schutt, p. 9).
Does this fit in well with the manner in
which we learn things?

Investigating the Social

World

Hypotheses- A statement of
relationship between two (or more)
variables.

But, do we start with hypotheses?

Research Questions- questions that we

seek to answer through the collection
and analysis of valid and reliable data.

Research Questions
Research questions are the source of
the hypothesis.
Identifying a good research question
Refining a research question
Evaluating a research question

Feasibility
Social Importance
Scientific Relevance

We often try to frame these questions

within theory.

What do we mean by
Theory?
Theory- a set of statements about reality.
Theoretical Constructs- items of interest
These constructs are usually what we are
trying to measure or study in more detail
(our variables).

So weve got questions, hypotheses,

variables and theorieswhere do they
all go?

(Research Circle)
Inductive vs. Deductive
Reasoning
Inductiv

Deducti
ve
Reasoni
ng

e
Reasoni
ng
starts
with
Data

HYPOTHESIS

DATA

THEORY

GENERALIZATIONS

Data and Variables

Data are pieces of information

Constant- Data that does not vary
Variables- Data that does vary

Variables can be broken down even

further:
Independent Variables- Variables that
impact other variables.
Dependent Variables- Variables that are
impacted by other variables.

Independent vs.
Dependent

Variable
A

Variable
B

Neither is Independent or Dependent

at this point.
Weve assumed no relationship

Independent vs.
Dependent

Independ
ent

Depende
nt

But if create a causal link between

them
Of course, were not limited to one
Independent variable.

Independent vs.
Dependent
I

Independ
ent

Depende
nt

Of course, were not limited to one

Independent variable.

Types of Research

Exploratory- Study of social phenomenon

Generally little previous research
Often qualitative in nature

Explanatory- Focusing on Cause & Effect

Hypotheses based on previous research
Multitude of methods available

Evaluation- Focuses on effectiveness of an

intervention

Methodologies

Qualitative

Methods focused on analyzing as the

individuals involved experience it.
Focus Groups
Intensive Interviewing

Focuses on individual experiences.

Assumes that general answers fail
to be specific enough to be useful.

Qualitative Methods

Focus Groups
Hosting a group of individuals
Allowing the group to control the direction

Intensive Interviewing
Unstructured interviewing
In-depth questioning

Participant Observation

Observing individuals in their natural

ecology

Methodologies

Quantitative

Record information as numerical or

categorical data that varies along
specified continuums.
Surveys
Experiments

Focuses on general experiences.

Assumes that most data can be
collected within fixed categories.

Quantitative Methods

Experimental Research

Intervention or Treatment

Survey Research
Questionnaire
Structured Interviewing

Which is better?
Really boils down to personnel preference.
A balancing act between the ability to be
specific (individual results) versus the
ability to generalize to a larger population.
Ability to
Generalize

Quantitative

Ability to be
Specific

Qualitativ
e

Qualitative vs.
Quantitative
The most recent school of thought is that
these two types of methodology dont
have to be thought of as competing.

Quantitative

MIXED
METHOD
S

Qualitative

How do we get started?

A good way to start is to understand
our limitations.
As we will read in the posted article,
much of our research does not stand
the test of time.
What do we need to be worried about?

General Errors In
Research

Overgeneralization

Assuming that one outcome applies to a

larger audience.

Selective Observation

Using data on a poorly sampled

group/person to understand the larger
population/universe.

General Errors In
Research, cont.

Illogical Reasoning

Jumping to a conclusion with inadequate

evidence.

Resistance to Change

The inability to recognize when your idea or

assumption isnt working.

We often frame these general errors in

terms of validity and reliability concerns.

Science, Society
and Criminolgical
Research
&
The Process of
Criminological
Research
Science is Organized Knowledge
-Herbert Spencer