Complications of

diabetes mellitus

Complications of Diabetes
Mellitus

Chronic
Complications of
Diabetes Mellitus

Microvascular

Retinopathy
(nonproliferative/proliferat
ive)
Nephropathy
Neuropathy
Sensory and motor (monoand polyneuropathy)
Autonomic

Macrovascular

Coronary artery disease

Peripheral vascular disease
Cerebrovascular disease

Acute
Complications of
Diabetes Mellitus

Hyperglycemia
crisis

Diabetic
ketoacidosis
Hyperglycemia
hyperosmolar State
Lactic acidosis

Hypoglycemia

Microvascular
Complications

Increased Polyol Pathway Flux

Aldose Reductase Function

Advanced
Glycation End-Product
Formation

Activation of Protein Kinase

C

Increased Hexosamine Pathway

Diabetic retinopathy

Pathophysiology of diabetic
retinopathy
Hyperglycemia
Pericyte
loss

Hyperperfusion

Capillary/
Endothelial
damage
Capillary
occlusion

Loss of
autoregulation
Vasoactive
factors

Loss of tight
junction

Retinal
ischemia
Growth
factors
New vessels
-Low resistance
- No pericyte/autoregulation

Macular
oedema

Advanced diabetic eye

disease
Retinal ischemia

Neovascularitation

Preretinal
haemorrhage

Pericyte
loss

Neovascular
glaucoma

Vitrous
haemorrhage

Blindness

Retinal
detachment

Diabetic retinopathy

Blindness is primarily the result of progressive diabetic

retinopathy and clinically significant macular edema.
Diabetic retinopathy is classified into two stages:
nonproliferative and proliferative.
Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy : marked by retinal
vascular microaneurysms, blot hemorrhages, and cotton
wool spots
The appearance of neovascularization in response to retinal
hypoxia is the hallmark of proliferative diabetic
retinopathy.
Duration of DM and degree of glycemic control are the best
predictors of the development of retinopathy; hypertension
is also a risk factor
The most effective therapy for diabetic retinopathy is
prevention.

Diabetic nephropathy

Pathophysiology of diabetic
nephropathy
Hyperglycemia

Renal
vasodilatation
Increased glomular
filtration rate

Protein glycation

Increased
intraglomerular
capillary pressure
Hypertension
Increased
protein excretion

Microalbuminuria or
macroalbuminuria

Glomurular
damage

Nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of ESRD in the US.

Individuals with diabetic nephropathy almost always have diabetic
retinopathy.
The stages of diabetic nephropathy are :

Hyperfiltration
Microalbuminuria
Overtproteinuria
Declining GFR
End stage renal failure

Microalbuminuria is defined as 30 to 300 mg/d in a 24-h collection or

30 to 300 g/mg creatinine in a spot collection (preferred method).
The appearance of microalbuminuria (incipient nephropathy) in type
1 DM is an important predictor of progression to overt proteinuria
(300 mg/d) or overt nephropathy.
Hypertension more commonly accompanies microalbuminuria or
overt nephropathy in type 2 DM

Diabetic nephropathy treatment

The optimal therapy for diabetic nephropathy is

prevention.
Interventions effective in slowing progression from
microalbuminuria to overt nephropathy include:

near normalization of glycemia,

strict blood pressure control, and
administration of ACE inhibitors or ARBs, and
treatment of dyslipidemia.

Blood pressure should be maintained at 130/80 mmHg

in diabetic individuals without proteinuria.
A slightly lower blood pressure (125/75) should be
considered for individuals with microalbuminuria or
overt nephropathy
A consensus panel of the ADA suggests modest
restriction of protein intake in diabetic individuals with
microalbuminuria (0.8 g/kg per day) or overt
nephropathy (<0.8 g/kg per day)

Diabetic neuropathy

Mechanism of nerve damage in

diabetes
METABOLIC

myoinositol

VASCULAR

glucose

Altered membrane
potensial

Slow nerve
conduction

sorbitol

nerve
oedema

AGE
formation

Arterial
narrowing
vasoconstriction

NO
production

Impairing
axonal transport

Vessel
occlusion

H2O

Diabetic neuropathy

Diabetic neuropathy occurs in approximately 50% of

individuals with long-standing type 1 and type 2 DM.
The development of neuropathy correlates with the
duration of diabetes and glycemic control; both
myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers are lost.
Several stage :
Intraneural biochemical abnormalities; sorbitol
accumulation, myoinositol depletion
Impairement of electrophysiological measurement;
decreased nerve conduction velocity; asymptomatic
Clinical neuropathy; detectable using clinical
methods; maybe symptomatic. Histological changes
evident
End stage complications. Exp are ulceration and
Charcot neuroarthropathy; major derangements of
neural structure and function.

Clinical features
symmetrical sensorimotor
neuropathy
Symptoms
Loss of sensation ;

Altered sensation:

Anaesthesia;numbness
Loss of pain perception
Paraesthesiae
Dysaesthesiae

Pain

Signs
Sensory loss
Diminished/absent
tendon reflexs
Muscle wasting and
weakness
Autonomic
dysfunction
Foot uleration

Burning
Hyperalgesia/allodynia
Neuralgia lancinating pain
Cramps ; restless leg

Burning, feeling like the feet are on fire

Stabbing, like sharp knives

Freezing, like the feet are on ice,

although they feel warm to touch

Lancinating, like electric shocks

Treatment of Symmetric
Neuropathy

Glucose control
Pain control

Tricyclic antidepressants

Anticonvulsants

Carbamazepine, gabapentin

Topical creams

Amitriptyline,desipramin, nortriptilin,
trazodone

capsaicin

Foot care

Autonomic Neuropathy

DM-related autonomic neuropathy can involve multiple

systems, including the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal,
genitourinary, sudomotor, and metabolic systems.
Autonomic neuropathies affecting the cardiovascular
system cause a resting tachycardia and orthostatic
hypotension.
Gastroparesis and bladderemptying abnormalities are
often caused by the autonomic neuropathy seen in DM
(discussed below).
Hyperhidrosis of the upper extremities and anhidrosis of
the lower extremities result from sympathetic nervous
system dysfunction.
Anhidrosis of the feet can promote dry skin with cracking,
which increases the risk of foot ulcers.
Autonomic neuropathy may reduce counterregulatory
hormone release, leading to an inability to sense
hypoglycemia appropriately ((hypoglycemia unawareness)

Macrovascular
complications

Macrovascular
complication

Macrovascular complications of diabetes mellitus are

condition characterized by atherosclerotic occlusive
disease of cerebral, myocard and lower extremities.
Atherothrombosis is the most common cause of
macrovascular complications
Atherothrombosis is characterized by a sudden
(unpredictable) atherosclerotic plaque disruption
(rupture or erosion) leading to platelet activation and
thrombus formation
Atherothrombosis is the underlying condition that
results in events leading to myocardial infarction,
ischemic stroke, amputation and vascular death

Atherogenesis A Complex And Progressive

Process1
Pathology of Atherogenesis
Initiation:
Accumulation of lipids at
vascular junctions
experiencing high shear
forces

Inflammatory cytokines induce

expression of adhesion molecules

Macrophages
bind to and enter
intima wall

Uptake of Lipids by
Macrophages

Macrophages
become foam
cells & fatty
streak formed

Chemo-attractants such as PDGF

released from activated macrophages

Smooth muscle
cells (SMCs)
migrate into the
intima

Result: Atherosclerotic
plaque2

Adapted from: P Libby, The Vascular Biology of Atherosclerosis, in: Braunwald

E, Zipes DP & Libby P 6th Edition, Heart Disease: a Textbook of Cardiovascular
Medicine 2001: London: WB Saunders. 2. Davies MJ. Heart 2000;83:361-66, with permission from the BMJ Publishing Group

Atherothrombosis Has Multiple

Manifestations
Ischemic stroke

Myocardial
infarction

Transient ischemic attack

Angina:
Stable
Unstable

Peripheral arterial disease:

Intermittent claudication
Rest pain
Gangrene
Necrosis
Adapted from: Drouet L. Cerebrovasc Dis 2002;13(suppl 1):16

Macrovascular disease in
diabetes mellitus

Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease account for

up 70% of death in patients with type 2 DM
All patients with type 2 diabetes have greater
predipostition to macrovascular disease, often having a
constellation of risk factors, which have been term
insulin resistance.
It has been hypotethesized that insulin resistance and
hyperinsulinemia (environmental and genetic factors),
are central to development :

Glucose intolerance
Hypertension
Dyslipidemia
Coagulopathy

These factors promote accelerated atherosclerosis,

explaining the increased risk of macrovascular disease.

Diabetes and Macrovascular

Disease

Libby and Plutsky. Circulation. 2002.

Strategies for reducing

macrovascular complications

Prevention proven intervention trials

Hyperglycemia
Dyslipidemia
Hypertension
Antiplatelet therapies

Prevention suggested by epidemiologic

analysis
Disorders of thrombolysis
Endothelial disorders

The diabetic foot

Diabetic foot disease

Approximately 15% of individuals with DM develop a

foot ulcer, and a significant subset will ultimately
undergo amputation (14 to 24%risk with that ulcer or
subsequent ulceration).
Syndrome of diabetic foot disease
Peripheral neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease
and tissue infection
Risk factors for foot ulcers or amputation include:
male sex, diabetes 10 years duration, peripheral
neuropathy, abnormal structure of foot (bony
abnormalities,callus, thickened nails), peripheral
arterial disease, smoking, history of previous ulcer or
amputation, and poor glycemic control.
The plantar surface of the foot is the most common
site of ulceration.
Ulcers may be primarily neuropathic (no
accompanying infection) or may have surrounding
cellulitis or osteomyelitis.

Pathophysiology of diabetic
foot
Neuropathy

Motor
dysfunction

Abnormal
Foot posture

Microvascular
disease

Neuropathy Neuropathy
Reduced pain
Sensation and
proprioception

Increased foot
prssure

Dry, cracked
skin

Poor tissue
nutrition and
oxygenation

Cheiroarthropathy
Arteriovenous
shunting

Callus

Trauma

Mechanical,
thermal,
chemical

Ulcer
Ischemia

Macrovascular
disease

Acute Complication of
Diabetes Mellitus

Hyperglycemia crisis
Diabetic

ketoacidosis (DKA)
Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State (HHS)

Hypoglycemia

Diabetic ketoacidosis
(DKA)
Hyperglycemic
Hyperosmolar State (HHS)

Pathophysiolgy of
hyperglycemia crisis

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

DKA was formerly considered a hallmark of

type 1 DM
The symptoms and physical signs of DKA

Symptoms : Nausea/vomiting, Thirst/polyuria,

Abdominal pain, Shortness of breath
Physical findings : Tachycardia, Dry mucous
membranes/reduced skin turgor, Dehydration /
hypotension, Tachypnea / Kussmaul,
respirations/respiratory distress, Abdominal
tenderness (may resemble acute pancreatitis or
surgical abdomen), Lethargy /obtundation /
cerebral edema / possibly coma

Precipitating factors

Inadequate insulin administration

Infection (pneumonia/UTI/
Gastroenteritis/sepsis
Infarction (cerebral, coronary,
mesenteric, peripheral)
Drugs (cocaine)
Pregnancy

HHS: Differences from DKA

Patients usually older- typically 60 or more
Major pathophysiologic differences
longer uncompensated osmotic diuresis
greater volume depletion
Acidemia (pH > 7.3) and ketosis are mild
Higher mortality often 30-50%
primarily due to underlying vascular or infectious
event
Occurs in Type 2 diabetics, often mild or unrecognized

Definition of HHS

Extreme hyperglycemia
Increased serum osmolality
Severe dehydration without
significant ketosis or acidosis

Joslins Diabetes Mellitus, 13th ed

Clinical Findings of HHS

HHS should be suspect : elderly patient with or without

the preexisting diagnosis of diabetes who exhibits acute
or subacute deterioration of CNS function and severely
dehydrated
Tachycardia
Low grade fever
Low or normal blood pressure
Dehydration dry mucous membrane, absent axillary
sweat, poor skin turgor.
Nausea, vomiting, distension, and pain-gastroparesis is
due to hypertonicity
Lethargy, hallucinations, and psychosis

Laboratory Findings
DKA

HHS

Fluid Balance in Diabetic

Hyperosmolarity
ECF = 14 L

ICF = 28 L

ECF

ICF
H2O
ECF hyperosmolar from ICF autotransfusion

Osmotic Diuresis
H2O

Osmotic Diuresis

ECF and ICF both hyperosmolar

Priority in the
Treatment of
Hyperglycemia Crisis

Replacing volume deficits normal saline

according to BP, urine output and CVP value
for old age, total deficits around 6-9 liters.

Correcting hyperosmolarity to 300

milliosmoles/L

Managing any underlying illnesses

Insulin ; RI 0.15u/kg bolus then 0.1/kg/hr

infusion until blood sugar about 250mg/dl or
osmo about 315

Thank your for your

attention