Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the branch of Physics

that deals with the conversion of heat into
other forms of energy, or other forms of
energy into heat.

Thermodynamics
Definitions
Heat This is a form of energy which when supplied to a
body or substance will increase the internal energy of
that body or substance.
Sensible Heat Heat that causes a change in the
temperature of a substance without changing its state.
Latent Heat Heat that causes a change of state of a
substance without changing its temperature.
Latent Heat of Evaporation The amount of heat
required to change a unit mass of a substance from
liquid to vapor without changing its temperature.
Latent Heat of Fusion - The amount of heat required to
change a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid
without changing its temperature.

Thermodynamics
Definitions

Enthalpy or Heat Content The amount of

heat expressed in KJ/Kg, contained in a
substance, relative to a base temperature at
which the Enthalpy is determined to be zero.
Saturation Temperature The temperature at
which a liquid reaches its boiling point. This
temperature depends upon the atmospheric
pressure.

Thermodynamics
Definitions
Specific Heat The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass substance 10C without
changing the state of the substance.
Super Heat The temperature increase of the gas or
vapor above its saturation temperature after all the liquid
has been evaporated.
Density The mass per unit volume of a substance
expressed in Kg/m3.
Specific Volume the volume of a unit mass of a
substance expressed in m3/kg. For gases this will
depend on the temperature and pressure of the gas.

Thermodynamics
Definitions
Absolute Pressure The pressure measured above a
perfect vacuum. It is the sum of atmospheric pressure
and gauge pressure and is expressed as KPa (abs) or
psia.
Gauge Pressure The pressure in a closed vessel as
registered on a pressure gauge. This is pressure above
atmospheric pressure. It is expressed as kPa (gauge).
Vacuum Pressure The reduction of pressure below
atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure - The pressure exerted by the
earths atmosphere. This is expressed Kpa, mm of
mercury or meters of water. The standard atmospheric
pressure is the average atmospheric pressure at sea
level (101.325 Kpa)

THERMODYNAMICS LAWS

The 0 Law
th

If:
Objects A and B are the same temperature
Objects B and C are the same temperature

Then:
Objects A and C are the same temperature
Just the transitive property of mathematics.

1 Law of Thermodynamics
st

The total sum of all energy in an isolated

system will never increase or decrease.
Law of conservation of energy.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed,
only transfer forms.

2 Law of Therm.
nd

If two objects are not the same

temperature then:
Heat will always flow from high to low
temperatures.
Hot object will decrease in temperature and
cold object will increase in temperature
until they are both the same temperature.

3 law of Thermodynamics
rd

Absolute zero is a state of zero

motion.
This means absolutely no entropy.
So it cant be reached.

Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer
Heat always moves from a warmer place
to a cooler place.
Hot objects in a cooler room will cool to
room temperature.
Cold objects in a warmer room will heat up
to room temperature.

Heat Transfer Methods

Heat transfers in three ways:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Conduction
When you heat a metal strip at one end, the heat travels to the other
end.

As you heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these vibrations make the adjacent
particles vibrate, and so on and so on, the vibrations are passed along the
metal and so is the heat. We call this?
Conduction

Why does metal feel colder than wood, if they

are both at the same temperature?
Metal is a conductor, wood is an insulator. Metal conducts the heat
away from your hands. Wood does not conduct the heat away from
your hands as well as the metal, so the wood feels warmer than the
metal.

Convection
What happens to the particles in a liquid or a gas when you
heat them?

The particles spread out and become

less dense.

This effects fluid movement.

Water movement
Cools at the
surface

Cooler water
sinks

Convection
current

Hot water
rises

Why is it windy at the seaside?

Cold air sinks

Where is the
freezer
compartment put in
a fridge?

It is put at the top,

because cool air
sinks, so it cools the
food on the way
down.

Freezer
compartment

It is warmer at
the bottom, so
this warmer air
rises and a
convection
current is set up.

The third method of heat transfer

How does heat energy get from the
Sun to the Earth?
There are no particles between
the Sun and the Earth so it
CANNOT travel by conduction or
by convection.

RADIATION

PSYCHROMETRICS

The First Four Things...

Dry-Bulb Temperature
Wet-Bulb Temperature
Absolute Humidity
Relative Humidity

Dry Bulb Temperature

Measured with a dry-bulb thermometer
Measures the level of heat intensity of a
substance
Used to measure and calculate sensible heat
and changes in sensible heat levels
Does not take into account the latent heat
aspect
Room thermostats measure the level of heat
intensity in an occupied space

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE SCALE

As we move up and down, the dry
bulb temperature does not change
As we move from left to right, the
dry bulb temperature increases
As we move from right to left, the
dry bulb temperature decreases

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

Wet Bulb Temperature

Measured with a wet-bulb thermometer
Temperature reading is affected by the
moisture content of the air
Takes the latent heat aspect into account
Used in conjunction with the dry-bulb
temperature reading to obtain relative
humidity readings and other pertinent
information regarding an air sample

WET-BULB TEMPERATURE SCALE

As we move up and down along a wetbulb temperature line, the wet bulb
temperature does not change
The red arrow indicates an increase
in the wet bulb temperature reading
The blue arrow indicates a
decrease in the wet bulb
temperature reading

ET

LB
U
B

RE
U
AT
R
PE
M
TE

ET

BU
LB

TE
M
PE
RA
TU
RE

WET-BULB, DRY-BULB COMBO

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

SLING PSYCHROMETER

---- HUMIDITY ---ABSOLUTELY RELATIVE

There are two types of humidity
ABSOLUTE
RELATIVE

AH and RH are not the same

Cannot be used interchangeably
All humidities are not created equal

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
Amount of moisture present in an air sample
Measured in grains per pound of air
60
7,000 grains of moisture
GRAINS = 1 pound

1 POUND

The moisture scale on the

right-hand side of the chart
provides information regarding
the absolute humidity of an air
sample

MOISTURE CONTENT SCALE

As we move up, the moisture

content increases
As we move down, the moisture
content decreases

MOISTURE CONTENT (BTU/LBAIR)

As we move from side to side, the

moisture content does not change

W
ET

BU

LB

TE
M
PE
RA
TU
RE

WET-BULB, DRY BULB & MOISTURE CONTENT

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Amount of moisture present in an air sample
relative to the maximum moisture capacity of
the air sample
Expressed as a percentage
Can be described as the absolute humidity
divided by the maximum moisture-holding
capacity of the air

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #1

HOW FULL IS THE PARKING LOT?

#10
ofCARS
CARS
X 100%
% FULL
=
% FULL
%#20
FULL
=SPACES
0.5= X
50%
100%
of
SPACES

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #2

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #3

60
GRAINS

If capacity is 120 grains, then the relative humidity will be:

RH = (60 grains 120 grains) x 100% = 50%

RELATIVE HUMIDITY SCALE

As we move along a relative
humidity line, the relative humidity
remains the same
As we move up, the relative
humidity increases
As we move down, the relative
humidity decreases

W
ET

BU

LB

TE
M
PE
RA
TU
RE

WET-BULB, DRY BULB, MOISTURE CONTENT & RELATIVE

HUMIDITY

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

The lines that represent

constant wet-bulb temperature
also represent the enthalpy of
the air

ENTHALPY SCALE
As we move up and down along
an enthalpy line, the enthalpy
does not change
The red arrow indicates an
increase in enthalpy
The blue arrow indicates a
decrease in enthalpy

WET-BULB, DRY BULB, MOISTURE CONTENT, RELATIVE

HUMIDITY & ENTHALPY

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

SPECIFIC VOLUME & DENSITY

Specific volume and density are reciprocals
of each other
Density = lb/ft3
Specific volume = ft3/lb
Density x Specific Volume = 1
Specific volume can be determined from
the psychrometric chart, density muse be
calculated

LINES OF SPECIFIC VOLUME

As we move along a line of constant
specific volume, the specific volume
remains unchanged
As we move to the right, the specific
volume increases
As we move to the right, the
specific volume increases

ft3 /lb

WET-BULB, DRY BULB, MOISTURE CONTENT, RELATIVE

HUMIDITY & ENTHALPY

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

RETURN AIR
75F DB & 50% RH

SUPPLY AIR
55F DB & 90% RH

Condensate Water

Return Air: 75FDB, 50% r.h.

Supply Air: 55FDB, 90% r.h.
Airflow: 1200 cfm

RETURN AIR
SUPPLY AIR

T = Return Air Temp Supply Air Temp

T = 75F - 55F = 20F
W = Return grains/lbAIR Supply grains/lbAIR
W = 64 Grains 60 Grains = 4 grains/lbAIR
Return Air: 75FDB, 50% r.h.

h = Return btu/lbAIR Supply btu/lbAIR

Supply Air: 55FDB, 90% r.h.

h = 28.1 btu/lbAIR - 21.6 btu/lbAIR = 6.5 btu/lbAIR

Airflow: 1200 cfm

h = 28.1 btu/lbAIR
h = 21.6 btu/lbAIR
RETURN AIR

64 grains/lb
60 grains/lb

SUPPLY AIR

55F

75F

AIR FORMULAE
QT = QS + QL
QT = 4.5 x cfm x h
Qs = 1.08 x cfm x T
QL = 0.68 x cfm x W

MIXED AIR SYSTEMS

Return air is mixed with outside air
Heat transfer coil does not see return air
from the occupied space exclusively
Percentage of outside air changes with its
heat content
Process is governed by an enthalpy control
The heat transfer coil sees only the mixture
of the two air streams

LAW OF THE TEE

Also known as nodal analysis

What goes into a tee, must go out!
Electric circuit applications
Water flow applications
Hot water heating applications
Mixed air applications

5 AMPS

2 AMPS

5 GPM

2 GPM

5 GPM @ 100F

5 GPM @ 140F

5 GPM @ 100F

3 GPM @ 140F

Heres The Math...

(5 GPM x 100F) + (3 GPM x 140F) = (8 GPM x YF)
500 + 420 = 8YF

920 = 8YF
Y = 115F

LAW OF THE TEE FOR MIXED AIR

OUTSIDE AIR

RETURN AIR

MIXED AIR

AIR
HANDLER

LAW OF THE TEE FOR MIXED AIR

PERCENTAGE OF RETURN AIR
+ PERCENTAGE OF OUTSIDE AIR

100% of MIXED AIR

OUTSIDE
RETURN

LAW OF THE TEE FOR MIXED AIR

SAMPLE PROBLEM
AIR CONDITIONS:

RETURN AIR (80%): 75FDB, 50%RH

OUTSIDE AIR (20%): 85FDB, 60%RH

MIXED AIR = 80% RETURN AIR + 20% OUTSIDE AIR

MIXED AIR = (.80) RETURN AIR + (.20) OUTSIDE AIR
MIXED AIR = (.80) (75FDB, 50%RH) + (.20) (85FDB, 60%RH)
MIXED AIR = 60FDB, 40%RH + 17FDB, 12%RH
MIXED AIR = 77FDB, 52%RH

Return Air: 75FDB, 50% r.h.

Outside Air: 85FDB, 60% r.h.
Mixed Air: 77FDB, 52% r.h.

OUTSIDE AIR

SUPPLY AIR

MIXED AIR
RETURN AIR

HEAT LOAD

Basic Concepts
Thermal load
The amount of heat that must be added or
removed from the space to maintain the
proper temperature in the space

Purpose of HVAC load estimation

Calculate peak design loads (cooling/heating)

Estimate likely plant/equipment capacity or
size
Provide info for HVAC design e.g. load
profiles
Form the basis for building energy analysis

BUILDING SURVEY
A building survey will help us achieve a realistic estimate
of thermal loads

Orientation of the building

Use of spaces
Physical dimensions of spaces
Ceiling height
Columns and beams
Construction materials
Surrounding conditions
Windows, doors, stairways
People (number or density, duration of occupancy, nature of activity)
Lighting (W/m2, type)
Appliances (wattage, location, usage)
Ventilation (criteria, requirements)
Continuous or intermittent operation

Outdoor Design Conditions

They are used to calculate design space
loads
Climatic design information
General info: e.g. latitude, longitude, altitude,
atm. pressure
Outdoor design conditions
Derived from statistical analysis of weather data
Typical data can be found in
handbooks/databooks, such as ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbooks

Indoor Design Criteria

Basic design parameters: (for thermal
comfort)
Air temp. & air movement
Typical: summer 24-26 oC; winter 21-23 oC
Air velocity: summer < 0.25 m/s; winter < 0.15 m/s

Relative humidity
Summer: 40-50% (preferred), 30-65 (tolerable)
Winter: 25-30% (with humidifier); not specified (w/o
humidifier)

See also ASHRAE Standard 55-2004

ASHRAE comfort zone

Indoor Design Criteria

Indoor air quality:
Air contaminants
e.g. particulates, VOC, radon, bioeffluents

Outdoor ventilation rate provided

ASHRAE Standard 62-2001

Air cleanliness (e.g. for processing)

Other design parameters:

Sound level
Pressure differential between the space &
surroundings (e.g. +ve to prevent infiltration)

INDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS

COOLING LOAD COMPONENTS

Cooling Load Components

External loads

Heat gain through exterior walls and roofs

Solar heat gain through fenestrations (windows)
Conductive heat gain through fenestrations
Heat gain through partitions & interior doors
Infiltration of outdoor air

Internal loads
People
Electric lights
Equipment and appliances

SENSIBLE HEAT GAINS

Heat Gain Through Exposed Walls

Heat Gain Through Exposed Roof
Heat Gain Through Glass
Heat Gain Through Partition Walls / Roofs
Heat Gain Through Occupants
Heat Gain Through Equipment
Heat Gain Through Lighting
Heat Gain Through Fresh Air
Heat Gain Through Supply Duct
Hear Gain Through system duct leakages
Heat Gain Through Fan / Motor Used for Air Circulation

LATENT HEAT GAINS

Heat Gain Through Occupants

Heat Gain Through Equipment
Heat Gain Through Fresh Air
Hear Gain Through system duct leakages

Heat Gain Through Exposed Walls

Q = U x A x T
Where
Q
U
A
T

Heat Gain in Btu/hr

Over all Heat transfer Co-efficient
Area in sqft
Temperature Difference in F

(use table 8 for calculating U, table 9 for T and table 11 for

correction factor)

Heat Gain Through Exposed Roofs

Q = U x A x T
Where
Q
U
A
T

Heat Gain in Btu/hr

Over all Heat transfer Co-efficient
Area in sqft
Temperature Difference in F

(use table 8 for calculating U, table 10 for T and table 11 for

correction factor)

Heat Gain Through Glass

Conduction Heat Gain Q = U x A x T
Where
Q Heat Gain in Btu/hr
U Over all Heat transfer Co-efficient
A Area in sqft
T Temperature Difference in F
(outdoor Indoor)
(use table 5 for calculating U)
Conduction Heat Gain Q = A x Sc x SHGC
Where
Q Heat Gain in Btu/hr
A
Area in sqft
Sc Shading co-efficient
Heat Gain Co-efficient
(use table 7for calculating SHGC)

SHGC

Solar

Heat Gain Through Partition Walls / Roofs

Q = U x A x T
Where
Q
U
A
T

Heat Gain in Btu/hr

Over all Heat transfer Co-efficient
Area in sqft
Temperature Difference in F

(Outdoor-indoor-5F) If area is shaded

(Outdoor-indoor) + 7 to 12F) If outdoor area furnace, kitchen,
plant room etc

Heat Gain Through OCCUPANTS

Values of Sensible heat and latent heat

emission from occupants engaged in
various activities are available in data
book
Refer Table 12

Heat Gain Through EQUIPMENT / LIGHTING

Calculate the total

equipment per hour

KW

usage

of

1 KW/hr = 3410 BTU/hr

If the light is of incandescent additional heat gain need not be taken.
If it is of Florescent type then 25% additional heat gain to be
accounted

Heat Gain from Fresh Air

Outside Air Sensible Heat

OASH = 1.08 x CFM x T
Where T = Fresh Air temp Inside design Condition

Outside Air Latent Heat

OALH = 0.68 x CFM x w
Where W = W (Fresh Air ) W (Inside design)

Outside Air Total Heat

OATH =OASH + OALH

FRESH AIR
Fresh Air is required to:

To maintain Oxygen level

To remove VOC
To remove odour and foul smell
To make-up air leakages

ASHRAE 62.1 to be referred

Normal Practice
5 to 7 CFM per person + 0.06 CFM per sqft

SYSTEM HEAT GAINS

Fresh air load
Supply duct Heat Gain
5% of Room sensible heat gain
System Duct Leakages
2% of Room sensible heat gain & Room Latent Heat Gain
FAN / Motor Heat Gain
BHP = (CFM x Total Static Pressure in inches of Water)
6254 x fan x motor
Safety Factor
2.5% of Room sensible heat gain & Room Latent Heat Gain

EFFECTIVE SENSIBLE HEAT FACTPR

(ESHF)

ESHF =ERSH / (ERSH +ERLH)

ESHF =ERSH / ERTH

APPARATUS DUE POINT (ADP)

TEMPERATURE
It is defined as the temperature of air
coming out from cooling coil, which when
introduced into the air conditioning area
with adequate air quantity will absorb
Room Sensible and Room Latent heat
loads and will achieve the required inside
design conditions
Refer Table 15 to determine ADP by knowing DBT, RH and ESHF

DEHUMIDIFIED AIR
It is the air volume flow rate in CFM desired to
be introduced into the air-conditioned area or
zone at temperatures of ADP which depends
upon heat load estimation.
This dehumidified CFM when we introduce into the room will absorb the
RSH and RLH and will achieve the required room design conditions

DCFM = ERSH / (1.08 x (1-BF) x T)

Where T = Room design Temperature - ADP

HEAT LOAD SHEET