Nationalism and

European Unity

The Origin of European Unity

Europe was 'united' at several times in the

past, mainly in classical times
Roman Empire
Christendom
Successors like Charlemagne, Habsburgs
claim title of Holy Roman Emperor - just
as various rulers in the Islamic world
claimed to be Caliph
'Europe' replaces Christendom as key idea,
c 1300-1350

Warfare and the European Idea

Desire to limit warfare within states was

always key to the European Idea
George Podebrad (Hussite king of
Bohemia) scheme for a compact against
the Turks (1458-71). Main European
Institutions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Assembly
Court of Justice
International arbitration
Army
Confederal budget

French Ideals of Europe, c.

1600

Sully's 'Grand Design':

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Peace in Europe
Joint army
Alliance against Turks and Tsar
Trade promotion
Representational central body
French as lingua franca
France viewed as leader
A federal plan which respected national
distinctiveness
9. Sought revival of Imperial and Papal authority
as sources of legitimacy

Enlightenment Europeanism

Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others

Were cosmopolitan liberals
Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linked
Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,
prosperity and Enlightenment
St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a
sentiment already took precedence over nationalism
St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of Europe
End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among
peoples rather than rulers

The Evolution of the European

Idea

Napoleon speaks of one European

fatherland
After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas
influential and popular. Influenced
Lemonnier's Les Etats-Unis d'Europe
(1872)
Revival of interest in St Simon after WWI
Most schemes were federal, though some
post-WWI radicals rejected the nation
outright

Europeanism pre-1939

Briand envisions 'union for economic,

political [and] social cooperation'
Took care not to infringe state sovereignty
Met a cool reception from most politicians
and opposition from many newspapers,
especially on the French right
Paneuropean ideas taken up by nonCommunist resistance movements during
WWII
Kalergi influences Churchill's 'United
States of Europe' speech of 1946

Post-WWII

Favourable climate due to war

But this time, improved communications
and a more cosmopolitan temper converted
the dream into a reality
Christian Democratic parties in Europe with
their Catholic links, romanticise the Papal
past and favour union, as do many
socialists
Humanitarian, pacifist and religious themes
blend with economic rationality of free
traders

Council of Europe

Not EC
10 original members, 1949
Developed European Convention on Human
Rights (1950)
Elements:

The Secretariat
The Committee of Ministers
The Parliamentary Assembly The European Court of
Human Rights
The Commissioner for Human Rights
European Commission for Democracy through Law,
better known as the Venice Commission.

Council of Europe's Cultural

'Nationalism'

Developed European
flag with 12 golden
stars (1955)
Established 5 May
1949 as Europe Day
(1964)
Anthem based on
Beethoven's Ode to Joy
(1972)
Has 46 members
today: distinct from
EU, but
complementary

European Community

Council of Europe, 1949, a forerunner

European Coal & Steel Community, 1952
European Economic Community, 1957
Euratom
Further aspects added after 1957
Expansion from original 'Six' to present 25

The Evolution of the European

Community

EU Structure
European
Commission
(Nations appoint
commissioners, but
bureaucracy tends to be
idealistic and pro-Europe)

Council of Ministers
(Mainly an organ for
intergovernmentalism and
national interest politics,
but QMV operates)

European Court of
Justice (ECJ)
(Decisions tend to
infringe upon national
sovereignty)

Nation-State
Sovereignty/
Identity

European
Parliament
(parties are based on
national ones, but MEPs
tend to be more
pro-Europe)

The Role of Idealists in the EU Legislative Process

EU structure

Degree of centralisation varies by

function:
A Federation (i.e. 'State') in monetary
affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental
policy. Also in legal-social aspects and
citizenship
A Confederation in social and economic
policy, consumer protection, internal affairs
An International Organisation in foreign
affairs

Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)

Since Nice Treaty (2000), an increasing

number of decisions taken by QMV rather
than unanimity
QMV threshold set to fall from 71% to 62%
Means that nations no longer have a veto
on integration. A step favouring integration
rather than nationalism
(intergovernmentalism)
Council of Ministers

Shift from Unanimity to QMV

27 new provisions are passing in whole or in part

from unanimity to a qualified majority, including:

judicial cooperation in civil matters

industrial policy
measures to facilitate the free movement of citizens
economic, financial and technical cooperation with
third countries
the appointment of members of certain institutions

the move to qualified majority voting was not

accepted for social and tax policy.

EU Citizenship vs National

Freedom to move and take up

residence anywhere in the Union;
The right to vote and stand in local
government and European
Parliament elections in the country of
residence
Clearly gives foreigners important
rights within nation-states

Balance between Nation and

EU

Always a balance between nation-state

interests and pan-European interest
Battle goes on between and within
institutions
Balance between Euro-idealism and
proponents of national interest
('intergovernmentalism')
Sometimes interests of small nations
dovetail with that of integrationists (they
have more clout to gain from being part of
Europe )

European Court of Justice

A more direct proponent of integration than even

the Commission
One judge per state, but decisions based on
simple majority
Judges and the 8 appointed advocates-general
may often be Euro-idealists or activist in their
philosophy
Van Gend en Loos case (1963) gives individuals
rights under EU law against their nation-states
Costa v. ENEL case (1964): where national and
EU law conflict, latter is supreme

ECJ Positive and Negative

Integration

Promotes 'negative integration':

barriers to intra-EU activity declared
invalid
Promotes 'positive integration': EC
legal regimes constructed to replace
national ones
Negative Integration: 1974 case
declared rules which hinder intra-EC
trade illegal; 1979 Cassis de Dijon

ECJ Positive Integration

Examples:
Gender Equality: Art. 119 of EEC Treaty:
'equal pay for equal work'
EU as 'Social Community', despite
opposition from UK
Opens up a flood of litigation from
women

EU Expansion

Impact of Expansion

Expansion to 25 will dilute integration

Harder for a common foreign policy and
common action
More poor countries will put strain on EU
budget - unlikely that wealthy countries will
contribute more (EU budget around 1.5% of
EU GDP)
Turkey and E Europe: Unclear where limits
lie: will this not dilute identity of EU (ie. No
longer between Tsar and Sultan)
Possible 'Two-Speed' Europe

Problems with European

Cultural or Civilizational Identity

Exclusive or Partial Items:

Christianity (Catholic, Prot, Orthodox, nonChristian)
Greco-Roman Inheritance (Islam?)
Reformation/Enlightenment (Islam,
Catholicism?)
Caucasian race (US, non-white Europeans?)
Geography (but what about EU expansion)
Others (but if Turks and Russians come in,
where are the traditional enemies?)

Pro-European Nations

Certain states embrace integrationist

sentiments more than others
France, Germany and other original members
(especially the 'Six') are most pro-Europe
among western European countries
Much has to do with national identities of these
states as opposed to mere national interest
Europe also a route to prominence on the world
stage for certain nations
Less well-off nations tend to be pro-Europe for
economic reasons (S & E Europe + Ireland)

France: Gaullist proEuropeanism

Seeks to reclaim French cultural

predominance of 18th-19th c
Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony
of 19th-20th c
Sees Anglo-Saxon west as other
De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a
Europe that includes Russia and is flanked
by Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese East
1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De
Gaulle seeks to block UK entry

German pro-European Idealism

Nazi period discredits nationalism

Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit
Desire for influence and self-respect
without nationalism
Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII
(witness different attitudes toward English
as language)
More truly cosmopolitan than French proEuropeanism

Smaller Nations: Benelux

History of neutrality and fear of larger

nations
History of pooling sovereignty in alliances
Only chance of agency is through a larger
unit
Identity is less significant in absence of
larger blocks
Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear
linguistic or religious markers of
nationhood unlike say Germany or France

Do you feel national,

European or Both (2004)?

Views of Unification (1995)

Euroskepticism On the Rise?

Smith: elites identify more easily because

Europeanism may be a proxy of
class/education
Smith: without European education and
media, little resonance among masses
esp less mobile
Evidence shows that Euro-skepticism and
anti-immigration sentiment strongly linked
and tied to less well-educated population
segments
Rise in support for European integration
peaks, 1988

Conclusion

Idea of Europe is at least 1000 years old

Many aspects of the European Union
challenge national sovereignty
But the EU also reinforces national identity
Particular nations tend to favour European
unity due to their own historical
experience and economic interests
Trend towards integration appears to have
stalled due to expansion and the rise of
Euro-skepticism in western Europe