Periodic table :

periodicity

The Modern Periodic Table

The periodic table is an arrangement
of the chemical elements, organized
on the basis of their atomic numbers,
electron configurations and recurring
chemical properties.
There are 92 naturally occurring
elements.
The Modern Periodic Table is made up
of 18 groups and 7 period.

The modern periodic table

The physical
properties of
elements of period 2
and 3

Atomic radius (atomic radii)

The size of an atom cannot be
measured exactly, However we can
measure the size of atom in terms of
its atomic radius.
The atomic radius is half the distance
between the nuclei of two closest
and identical atoms

 We can classify atomic radius into

three
a) Covalent radius
b) Metallic radius
c) Van der Waals radius

Covalent radius
Definition : half the length from one
nuclei to another atoms nuclei
bonded covalently.

Metallic radius
Definition : half of the distance
between the two adjacent metal
atoms in the metallic lattice.

NOTE
#For metallic elements it may refer to
covalent radius or metallic radius.
>Metallic used for non metal
>Covalent for metals

 For metallic elements which consists

of covalent radius or metallic radius
they have generally smaller atomic
radius .
Covalent bonds and lattice are very
strong bonds that pull the shells
closer together, causing the radius to
decrease.

Van der Waals radius

Definition : half the distance
between two neighbouring atoms
which are not chemically bonded in
solid state.
Appear like touching, less
attractive force.

Factors affecting Atomic

radius
There are factors that affect the
atomic radius (size of atom ) which
causes atoms having different sized
across the group and down the
period.
a) Screening effect
b) Nuclear charge

Screening effect
The decrease in attraction between
an electron and the nucleus of an
atom with more then one electron.
Its caused by mutual repulsion
between electrons in the inner shell
with those at the outer shell.
This repulsion (screening ) causes
the size of atom to increase.

Mutual
repulsion

 The increase number of electrons the

higher the repulsion force.
The inner electrons shield the outer
electrons from the nucleus pull
greater the screening effect, easier
the removal of electron.

 However if the inner electronic shells

have electrons , the attraction forces
between nucleus and outermost
electron will not be strong.
The outermost electron is shield from
the nucleus by the inner electrons.

11+

 Eg : magnesium atom has larger atomic

radius then berylium. Although Mg has a
larger nuclear charge it has more occupied
shell then berylium.
The more the number of electrons, less the
attraction force , smaller the size
(refer periodic table )
The lower in the period the more screening
effect the larger the atomic radius.

Nuclear charge
The nucleus charge is the total charge of all
the protons in the nucleus.
It has the same value as the atomic number.
The nuclear charge increases as you go across
the periodic table.
The nuclear charge pulls the electrons closer
to the nucleus and causes the atomic size to
decrease.
The stronger the nucleus charge
(atomic number ) the smaller the atomic radius

 Eg : across period 2 carbon has atomic

number of 6 and nitrogen 7. this means
nitrogen has higher nuclear charge
hence smaller atomic radius.
The effective nuclear charge : the
difference between the screening
constant and the actual nuclear charge.
The higher the effective nuclear charge
the smaller the atomic radius

Comparing =)
Screening effect

Nuclear charge

Down the group the

size increases
The number of shells
with occupied
electrons increase
The attraction force
decreases
The size increases

Across the period the

size decreases
The proton number
increases across the
period
The attraction force
increases
The size decreases

Atomic radii (radius ) across period

2 and 3
Across the period 2 and 3 (from left to
right ) there is an decreases in atomic
size.
This is due to the increase in nuclear
charge across these periods
Hence increasing its electrostatic pull
between electrons and nucleus,
resulting in decrease in atomic size.

 The screening effect will remain almost

unchanged as the electrons across the
same period are added to the same
quantum shell which are 2s (period 2 )
and 2p( period 3).
This will cause the effective nuclear
charge to increase
Due to the outermost electrons being
pulled closer to the nucleus hence,
decreasing its atomic radius.

Atomic radii down a group.

Going down a group the atomic
radius will increase.
This is because the increase in
proton number that results in
increase number of shells. This
causes the attraction forces between
nucleus and outermost electrons to
decrease.
Increase in screening effect
( repulsion )

Ionic radii
The radius of a atoms ion (cation or
anion)
Ionic radii of the cation and anion
gives the distance between the ions
in a crystal lattice.
The higher the nuclear charge, the
higher the forces of attraction and
hence larger ionic radius

Ionic radii across period 2 and 3

(The size of cations and anions decrease)
Cations decrease with increasing proton
number
a) The increase in proton number increases the
attraction force between nucleus and electron
hence smaller atomic size to decrease.
b) In period 2,all cations have valence of 2 but as
the proton number increases as for Li+ (3)
and (5) for B3+ so does the strength.
c) The attraction between B3+ is stronger then
Li+

The anion size decreases with

increasing proton number
a) The proton number increasing causes the
attraction between the nucleus and
electrons to increase hence the atomic size
decrease.
b) All anions in period 2 has 8 electrons but
the nuclear charge increases across the
period causes the attraction to increase
Eg : N3+ (7) and F-(9)

The ionic radius down

the group
Going down the group the size of
ions increases
The screening effect increases with
the addition of extra shell.
The more the number of shells the
less the attraction force ( increase in
repulsion ) hence the atomic size
increases

 Neutral atoms or ions of same number of

electrons are said to be isoelectronic.
Positive ions (cations) are smaller than its
neutral atom.
Na+ ion is smaller than Na atom. This is
because Na+ is more stable by donating
one electron hence the attraction force is
stronger
Negative ions (anions) are larger than its
neutral atoms .
Cl- is larger than Cl atom as Cl- is more
stable by accepting one electron making
its attraction force between nucleus
weaker

Melting/boiling point and the

enthalpy of vaporisation.
Melting point is the temperature when
a solid changes into liquid
Boiling point is the temperature when
the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal
of that atmospheric pressure.
Enthalpy of vaporisation is the heat
energy required to covert 1mole of liquid
into vapour at its boiling point.Also it
measures the strength of the
intermolecular forces between particles
in its liquid state.

 The melting points depend on two

factors:
a) The bonds involved (ionic, covalent ,
metallic or Van der Waals )
b) The structure/particle arrangements
( giant covalent , simple molecular
or metallic s)

CHEMICAL BONDING
For elements with strong bonding like
ionic solids or giant covalent
molecules their melting and boiling
points are very high
Because their molecules are held by
strong attraction forces that makes it
harder to break
More energy is needed to break the
bonds hence making the melting and
boiling point higher

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
A covalently bonded molecule between
atoms in giant crystal lattice.
Metallic bonds in metal lattice, the
positively charges metal ions are attracted
to the could of electron. As the valence
electron increase the attraction force
increases
Simple molecular structure are for non
metallic elements that form simple
structure.

Based on the graph,

sodium, magnesium and aluminium
are giant molecules with metallic
bonds
Silicon has giant covalent molecule.
Phosphorus , sulphur , chlorine and
argon are simple covalent molecule.

 Hence the boiling point increases gradually for

Na, Mg ,Al and Si as they have a strong
covalent/metallic bond (intermolecular forces )
that requires more energy to break the bonds
causing a steep increase in boiling/melting
point
As for the simple molecules P,S,Cl they require
less energy hence the boiling/melting point
experience a decrease.
The strength of metallic/covalent bond
increases with the increase in valence electron.

 For the enthalpy of vaporisation it is

directly proportional to the
melting/boiling.
As the boiling/melting increases the
enthaply of vaporisation also
increases as more heat is needed to
convert 1mole of liquid into vapour.

Electrical Conductivity

 Metals are good conductors of

electricity .This is due to the
presence of mobile electrons
Non-metals do not conduct
electricity.
As the number of delocalised
electrons increase the electric
conductivity increases.

 Li and Be are metals that conduct

good electricity in solid and molten
state due to their delocalised
electrons that move freely across the
metal.

Electronegativity

 Is the ability of an atom in a covalent

bond to attract shared electrons to
itself
Tendency to attract electrons.
The greater its electronegativity the
greater its tendency to attract
electron.
Is effected by the
>atomic number(nuclear charge) or
>distance of valence electron from
nucleus(atomic radius)

The electronegativity increases

across the period
As the atomic radius decreases
across the period its
electronegativity increases across
the period
Its attraction forces between nucleus
and electron will increase hence the
tendency to attract electrons are
higher

Electronegativity decreases down

the group.
As going down the group the nuclear
charge and screening effect increases but,
the screening effect has a bigger increase
than the nuclear charge
Hence the atomic radius increases
Resulting in an decrease in effective
nuclear charge causing the attraction
between nucleus and electrons to
decrease.
Causing the tendency to attract electrons
to decrease.