CS2100 Computer Organisation

Sequential Logic

SEQUENTIAL LOGIC

Memory Elements
Latches: S-R Latch, D Latch
Flip-flops: S-R flip-flop, D flip-flop, J-K flip-flops, T flip-flops
Asynchronous Inputs
Finite State Machines
Memory
Memory Unit
Read/Write Operations
Memory Arrays

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Sequential Logic

INTRODUCTION (1/2)

Two classes of logic circuits

Combinational
Sequential

Combinational Circuit

Sequential Circuit
Each output depends on both
present inputs and state.

Each output depends entirely

on the immediate (present)
inputs.
inputs : :

Combinational
Logic

::

outputs

inputs : :

Combinational
Logic

::

outputs

Memory

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Sequential Logic

INTRODUCTION (2/2)

Two types of sequential circuits:

Synchronous: outputs change only at specific time
Asynchronous: outputs change at any time

Multivibrator: a class of sequential circuits

Bistable (2 stable states)
Monostable or one-shot (1 stable state)
Astable (no stable state)

Bistable logic devices

Latches and flip-flops.
They differ in the methods used for changing their state.

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Sequential Logic

MEMORY ELEMENTS (1/3)

Memory element: a device which can remember value

indefinitely, or change value on command from its inputs.
Memory
element

command

stored value

Characteristic table:

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Command
(at time t)

Q(t)

Q(t+1)

Set

Reset

Memorise /
No Change

0
1

0
1

Sequential Logic

Q(t) or Q: current state

Q(t+1) or Q+: next state

MEMORY ELEMENTS (2/3)

Memory element with clock.

Memory
element

command

clock

Clock is usually a square wave.

Positive pulses

Positive edges
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stored value

If clock period is x seconds, then

the clock frequency (or rate) is 1/x
Hz. For example, a 2 GHz PC has
a clock period of 0.5 nanosecond.
Clock period

Negative edges

Sequential Logic

MEMORY ELEMENTS (2/3)

Memory element with clock.

Memory
element

command

clock

Clock is usually a square wave.

Positive pulses

Positive edges
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stored value

The speed of light in vacuum is

about 3 x 108 metres per second.
In half a nanosecond, light travels
15 cm.
Clock period

Negative edges

Sequential Logic

MEMORY ELEMENTS (3/3)

Two types of triggering/activation

Pulse-triggered
Edge-triggered

Pulse-triggered
Latches
ON = 1, OFF = 0

Positive pulses

Positive edges

Negative edges

Edge-triggered
Flip-flops
Positive edge-triggered (ON = from 0 to 1; OFF = other time)
Negative edge-triggered (ON = from 1 to 0; OFF = other time)

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Sequential Logic

FINITE STATE MACHINES

Built with combinational logic and memory (stores the state)

Next state depends on current state and inputs
Many computations can be specified as FSMs
Example: counter

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Sequential Logic

ELEMENTS OF A FSM
A finite

set of states

One of the state is a special START state

Zero or more of the states are FINAL state
States are related to one another by state
transitions
A finite

set of inputs
A finite set of outputs
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Sequential Logic

10

EXAMPLE
Final State

Input
Retire

State

Leave == 0

Death

Graduate

er
ov

Age == 6

n
tio
ca
Va

Ag
e

re
Bo

==
65

Start State

Heart attack

Bored

Born

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Education

Work

Sequential Logic

Play

State Transition

11

FSM control for rubber banding

Move / B

Release / C

Press / A

A:

X = current_mouse_position();

B:

X = current_mouse_position();
Draw line from X to Y;

C:

Act on line input;

12

USE CASE EXAMPLE

Two output signals:

NSlite: When this signal is asserted, the light on the north-south road is
green; when this signal is deasserted the light on the north-south road is
red.
EWlite: When this signal is asserted, the light on the east-west road is
green; when this signal is deasserted the light on the east-west road is
red.

Two inputs: NScar and EWcar.

NScar: Indicates that a car is over the detector placed in the roadbed in
front of the light on the north-south road (going north or south).
EWcar: Indicates that a car is over the detector placed in the roadbed in
front of the light on the east-west road (going east or west).

The traffic light should change from one direction to the other only if
a car is waiting to go in the other direction; otherwise, the light
should continue to show green in the same direction as the last car
that crossed the intersection.

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Sequential Logic

13

STATE DIAGRAM
Two states:

NSgreen: The traffic light is green in the north-south direction

EWgreen: The traffic light is green in the east-west direction

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Sequential Logic

14

Memory elements

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Sequential Logic

15

S-R LATCH (1/3)

Two inputs: S and R.

Two complementary outputs: Q and Q'.
When Q = HIGH, we say latch is in SET state.
When Q = LOW, we say latch is in RESET state.

For active-high input S-R latch (also known as NOR gate latch)

R = HIGH and S = LOW Q becomes LOW (RESET state)

S = HIGH and R = LOW Q becomes HIGH (SET state)
Both R and S are LOW No change in output Q
Both R and S are HIGH Outputs Q and Q' are both LOW
(invalid!)

Drawback: invalid condition exists and must be avoided.

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Sequential Logic

16

S-R LATCH (2/3)

Active-high input S-R latch:

10100 R

Q 11000

10001 S

Q' 0 0 1 1 0

S
1
0
0
0
1

R
0
0
1
0
1

Q Q'
1 0
initial
1 0 (afer S=1, R=0)
0 1
0 1 (after S=0, R=1)
0 0
invalid!

Block diagram:

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Q'

Sequential Logic

17

S-R LATCH (3/3)

Characteristic table for active-high input S-R latch:

S

Q'

NC

NC

1
0
1

0
1
1

1
0
0

0
1
0

S R
0
0
1
1

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0
1
0
1

No change. Latch
remained in present state.
Latch SET.
Latch RESET.
Invalid condition.

Q'

Q(t+1)
No change
Q(t)
0
Reset
1
Set
indeterminate

Sequential Logic

Q(t+1) = S + R' Q
S R = 0

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GATED S-R LATCH

S-R latch + enable input (EN) and 2 NAND gates a gated

S-R latch.
S

EN

EN

Q'

Q'

Outputs change (if necessary) only when EN is high.

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Sequential Logic

19

GATED D LATCH (1/2)

Make input R equal to S' gated D latch.

D latch eliminates the undesirable condition of invalid state in

the S-R latch.

EN

EN

Q'

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Sequential Logic

Q'

20

GATED D LATCH (2/2)

When EN is high,
D = HIGH latch is SET
D = LOW latch is RESET

Hence when EN is high, Q follows the D (data) input.

Characteristic table:

When EN=1, Q(t+1) = D

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Sequential Logic

21

FLIP-FLOPS (1/2)

Flip-flops are synchronous (clocked) bistable (two state)

devices.

Output changes state at a specified point on a triggering input

called the clock.

Change state either at the positive (rising) edge, or at the

negative (falling) edge of the clock signal.
Clock signal
Positive edges

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Negative edges

Sequential Logic

22

FLIP-FLOPS (2/2)

S-R flip-flop, D flip-flop, and J-K flip-flop.

Note the > symbol at the clock input.

S

C
R

C
Q'

C
Q'

Q'

Positive edge-triggered flip-flops

S

C
R

C
Q'

C
Q'

Q'

Negative edge-triggered flip-flops

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Sequential Logic

23

S-R FLIP-FLOP

S-R flip-flop: On the triggering edge of the clock pulse,

R = HIGH and S = LOW Q becomes LOW (RESET state)

S = HIGH and R = LOW Q becomes HIGH (SET state)
Both R and S are LOW No change in output Q
Both R and S are HIGH Invalid!

Characteristic table of positive edge-triggered S-R flip-flop:

S

C
R

Q'

CLK

Q(t+1)

Comments

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

Q(t)
0
1
?

No change
Reset
Set
Invalid

X = irrelevant (dont care)

= clock transition LOW to HIGH
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Sequential Logic

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S-R FLIP-FLOP

CLK

SET

RESET
Q

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Sequential Logic

25

D FLIP-FLOP

D flip-flop: Single input D (data). On the triggering edge of the

clock pulse,
D = HIGH Q becomes HIGH (SET state)
D = LOW Q becomes LOW (RESET state)

Hence, Q follows D at the clock edge.

Convert S-R flip-flop into a D flip-flop: add an inverter.

D
CLK

CLK

Q(t+1)

Q'

1
0

1
0

C
R

A positive edge-triggered D flip-flop

formed with an S-R flip-flop.
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Comments
Set
Reset

= clock transition LOW to HIGH

Sequential Logic

26

D FLIP-FLOP

CLK

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Sequential Logic

27

D FLIP-FLOP vs D LATCH
CLK for FF
Connect to EN for latch

D
Q for
D-flip-flop
Enabled!

Q for
D-latch

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Sequential Logic

28

D FLIP-FLOP

Application: Parallel data transfer.

To transfer logic-circuit outputs X, Y, Z to flip-flops Q1, Q2 and
Q3 for storage.
D

CLK
X

Combinational
logic circuit

CLK

D
Transfer

CLK

Q1 = X*

Q'
Q

Q2 = Y*

Q'
Q

Q3 = Z*

Q'

* After occurrence of negative-going transition

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Sequential Logic

29

J-K FLIP-FLOP (1/2)

J-K flip-flop: Q and Q' are fed back to the pulse-steering

NAND gates.

No invalid state.

Include a toggle state

J = HIGH and K = LOW Q becomes HIGH (SET state)

K = HIGH and J = LOW Q becomes LOW (RESET state)
Both J and K are LOW No change in output Q
Both J and K are HIGH Toggle

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Sequential Logic

30

J-K FLIP-FLOP (2/2)

J-K flip-flop circuit:

J
Q

Pulse
transition
detector

CLK

Q'

Characteristic table:
J

CLK

Q(t+1)

Comments

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

Q(t)
0
1
Q(t)'

No change
Reset
Set
Toggle

Q(t+1) = J Q' + K' Q

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Sequential Logic

J K

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Q(t+1)
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
31

Pulse detection circuit

Positive edge detection

Propagation delay of the NOT gate

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Sequential Logic

32

Pulse detection circuit

Positive edge detection

Negative edge detection

Propagation delay of one NOT gate

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Sequential Logic

33

T FLIP-FLOP

T flip-flop: Single input version of the J-K flip-flop, formed by

tying both inputs together.
T
Pulse
transition
detector

CLK

CLK
Q'

Q'

Characteristic table:
T

CLK

Q(t+1)

Comments

0
1

Q(t)
Q(t)'

No change
Toggle

Q T
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

Q(t+1)
0
1
1
0

Q(t+1) = T Q' + T' Q

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Sequential Logic

34

Frequency Divider
CLK

Frequency = f
CLK

Q
Frequency = f / 2

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Sequential Logic

35

Frequency Divider
What

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does this do?

Sequential Logic

36

A 4 bit counter
A BCD

CLK
CLK is at frequency f: 1010101010101010101010101010101010
D is at frequency f/2: 110011001100110011001100110011001111
C is at frequency f/4: 111100001111000011110000111100001111
B is at frequency f/8: 1111111100000000111111110000000011111111
A is at frequency f/16: 11111111111111110000000000000000
Recall our truth table! Count down
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Sequential Logic

37

Counter from scratch

Bit D changes every clock cycle

Easy just use a JK flip flop

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Sequential Logic

ABCD
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
38

Counter from scratch

Bit C toggles when D is 1 in the previous cycle

It does not change when D is 0 in the previous cycle

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Sequential Logic

ABCD
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
39

Counter from scratch

Bit B toggles when C and D are both 1 in the previous cycle

It does not change otherwise

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Sequential Logic

ABCD
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
40

Counter from scratch

Bit A toggles when B and C and D are all 1 in the previous

cycle

It does not change otherwise

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Sequential Logic

ABCD
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
41

Decimal counter

Bit A toggles when B and C and D are all 1 in the previous

cycle

Both bit A and C to be set to 0 when A and D are both 1 in

the previous cycle

When A is 1, disallow any toggling of C (use D)

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Sequential Logic

ABCD
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0111
42

Frequency Divider (Odd)

A
B

CLK

Frequency = f
CLK
Frequency = f / 3
A
B

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Sequential Logic

43

Design methodology for

sequential logic

The Moore Machine

Output

depends only on the current state

Synchronous

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counters

Sequential Logic

45

Example: 3-bit binary counter

Step 1: Formulate the problem either as a truth table or a finite state machine
Present State

Next State

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Sequential Logic

46

Step 2: Assign flip-flops

Will

use one flip-flop for each of the

current state bits
3 JK flip-flops for A, B, and C, respectively

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Sequential Logic

47

Step 3: Draw truth table for flip-flop

inputs
Q

Present State

Next State

J K

0 0
0 0
0KB1
0 1
X
1 0
1 X0
1 01
1 1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Q(t+1)

JA

KA

JB

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Sequential Logic

JC

0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0

1
X
1
X

KC
X
1
X
1

48

Step 3: K-map
A

BC

00 01 11

10

BC

00 01 11

10

JA = BC

BC

KA = BC

00 01 11

10

00 01 11

10

JB = C

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BC

KB = C

Sequential Logic

49

Step 3: K-map contd

BC

00 01 11

10

BC

10

JC = 1

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00 01 11

KC = 1

Sequential Logic

50

Step 4: Circuit Implementation

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Sequential Logic

51

USING T-FLIP-FLOPS INSTEAD

Present State

Q T

Next State

TA

TB

TC

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Sequential Logic

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

Q(t+1)
0
1
1
0

52

K-MAPS FOR T-FLIP-FLOPS

A

BC

00 01 11

10

BC

00 01 11

10

TB = C

TA = BC
A

BC

00 01 11

10

TC = 1

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Sequential Logic

53

Sychronous 3-bit counter using T-flipflops

A

CLK

CLK

CLK

CLK

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Sequential Logic

54

THE MEALY MACHINE

Output

is both a function of an input and

the current state

Most

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finite state machines

Sequential Logic

55

EXAMPLE OF A MEALY FSM

0
1

Use 2 JK flipflops for the 4

states

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Sequential Logic

56

Truth table for flip-flop inputs

Present
State

Input

Next
State

JA

KA

JB

KB

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Sequential Logic

J K

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Q(t+1)
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0

57

Step 3: K-map
A

BX

00 01 11

10

BX

00 01 11

JA = B

BX

KA = BX

00 01 11

10

BX

00 01 11

10

JB = X

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10

KB = AX + AX
=A X
Sequential Logic

58

IMPLEMENTATION OF FSM

CLK

CLK
K

CLK
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Sequential Logic

59

ASYNCHRONOUS INPUTS (1/2)

S-R, D and J-K inputs are synchronous inputs, as data on

these inputs are transferred to the flip-flops output only on the
triggered edge of the clock pulse.

Asynchronous inputs affect the state of the flip-flop

independent of the clock; example: preset (PRE) and clear
(CLR) [or direct set (SD) and direct reset (RD)].

When PRE=HIGH, Q is immediately set to HIGH.

When CLR=HIGH, Q is immediately cleared to LOW.

Flip-flop in normal operation mode when both PRE and CLR

are LOW.

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Sequential Logic

60

ASYNCHRONOUS INPUTS (2/2)

A J-K flip-flop with active-low PRESET and CLEAR

asynchronous inputs.
PRE

PRE
J

CLK

Q'

Q
Pulse
transition
detector
Q'

CLR

CLR
CLK
PRE
CLR

J = K = HIGH
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Preset
Sequential Logic

Toggle

Clear
61

METASTABILITY (1/3)
In reality, nothing is instantaneous. Critical timing parameters must be observed.
CLOCK

tco

DATA

ts setup time
th hold time
tco clock to output time
(propagation delay)

OUTPUT

ts
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th
Sequential Logic

62

METASTABILITY (2/3)
If setup and hold times are violated, flip-flop may
oscillate in an indeterminate state between 0
and 1
This is called metastability
Introduces error in the circuits operation
Cannot be absolutely avoided in practice

Make sure clock period is long enough

Use flip-flop chain

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Sequential Logic

63

METASTABILITY (3/3)

Input

Output

CLK

The probability of metastability gets closer and closer to

zero (but never zero) as the number of flip-flops
connected in series is increased.

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Sequential Logic

64

TRI-STATE MULTIPLEXERS

Tri-state = high, low, highimpedance

High-impedance means the circuit
is not connected

A tri-state buffer:
When enabled, connects input to
output
When disabled disconnects input
from output by entering a highimpedance state

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Sequential Logic

65

MEMORY HIERARCHY (1/2)

Memory stores programs and data.

Definitions:
1 byte = 8 bits
1 word: in multiple of bytes, a unit of transfer between main
memory and registers, usually size of register.
1 KB (kilo-bytes) = 210 bytes; 1 MB (mega-bytes) = 220 bytes;
1 GB (giga-bytes) = 230 bytes; 1 TB (tera-bytes) = 240 bytes.

Desirable properties: fast access, large capacity, economincal

cost, non-volatile.

However, most memory devices do not possess all these

properties.

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Sequential Logic

66

MEMORY HIERARCHY (2/2)

Memory hierarchy
Fast, expensive
(small numbers),
volatile
registers
main memory
disk storage
magnetic tapes

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Sequential Logic

Slow, cheap
(large numbers),
non-volatile

67

REGISTER FILE (1/2)

A register is an array of D-flip-flops

A register file is a circuit with several registers, and
selection lines to choose on which register to operate
next
Operations: read and write
Features:
- Fast
- Simple addressing
- Multiported
(multiple reads and writes
concurrently)

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Sequential Logic

68

REGISTER FILE (2/2)

WR

Write data

CLK

CLK

CLK

CLK

Register
Number

4-bit register

Decoder

Read data
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Sequential Logic

69

MEMORY (1/2)

Data transfer
Processor

Up to 2k
addressable
locations.

Address

k-bit address bus

MAR

Memory

0
1
2
3
4
5

n-bit data bus

MDR

Control lines
(R/W, etc.)

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Sequential Logic

70

MEMORY (2/2)
A memory unit stores binary information in groups of bits
called words.

The data consists of n lines (for n-bit words). Data input

lines provide the information to be stored (written) into
the memory, while data output lines carry the information
out (read) from the memory.

The address consists of k lines which specify which word

(among the 2k words available) to be selected for reading
or writing.

The control lines Read and Write (usually combined into

a single control line Read/Write) specifies the direction of
transfer of the data.
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Sequential Logic

71

MEMORY UNIT

Block diagram of a memory unit:

n data
input lines
n

k address lines

Memory unit
2k words
n bits per word

Read/Write
n

n data
output lines

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Sequential Logic

72

READ/WRITE OPERATIONS

Write operation:
Transfers the address of the desired word to the address lines.
Transfers the data bits (the word) to be stored in memory to the
data input lines.
Activates the Write control line (set Read/Write to 0).

Read operation:
Transfers the address of the desired word to the address lines.
Activates the Read control line (set Read/Write to 1).
Memory Enable Read/Write
Memory Operation
0
X
None
1
0
Write to selected word
1
1
Read from selected word

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Sequential Logic

73

MEMORY CELL

Two types of RAM

Static RAMs use flip-flops as the memory cells.
Dynamic RAMs use capacitor charges to represent data. Though simpler in
circuitry, they have to be constantly refreshed.

A single memory cell of the static RAM has the following logic and
block diagrams:
Select

Select
R

Input

Output

BC

Output

Read/Write

Read/Write

Logic diagram
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Input

Block diagram
Sequential Logic

74

MEMORY ARRAYS (1/4)

Logic construction
of a 43 RAM (with
decoder and OR
gates):

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Sequential Logic

75

MEMORY ARRAYS (2/4)

An array of RAM chips: memory chips are

combined to form larger memory.

A 1K 8-bit RAM chip:

RAM 1K x 8
Input data 8
Address 10
Chip select
Read/write

DATA (8)
ADRS (10)
CS
RW

(8)

Output data

Block diagram of a 1K x 8 RAM chip

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Sequential Logic

76

MEMORY ARRAYS (3/4)

Address
Lines
11 10

Lines
09

Input data
8 lines

DATA (8)
(8)
ADRS (10)
CS
1K x 8
RW

2x4
decoder
S0
S1

0
1
2
3

1024 2047
DATA (8)
(8)
ADRS (10)
CS
1K x 8
RW

2048 3071

Read/write

01023

DATA (8)
(8)
ADRS (10)
CS
1K x 8
RW

4K 8 RAM.

3072 4095
DATA (8)
(8)
ADRS (10)
CS
1K x 8
RW

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Sequential Logic

Output
data

77

MEMORY ARRAYS (4/4)

A0
A1

21bit
addresses

19bitinternalchipaddress

A19
A20

2bit
decoder

512K x 8
memory chip

19-bit
address

512kX8
memorychip

8-bit data
input/output

Chip select

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D3124

D2316

D 158

D70

2M 32 memory module
Using 512K 8 memory chips.
Sequential Logic

78

END

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Sequential Logic

79