Introduction to

Cytology or Cell Biology

How do we observe cells?

Light microscope

Visible light passes through object

Lens magnify image

Electron microscope

Scanning - surface of object

Transmission - sees through objects
100,000 X to Millions magnification
power

How do we know what

happens in each part of
the cell?

Radioisotopes are used to "trace" different

chemical reactions through a cell.

Separate cellular structures with a blender

Centrifuge material and analyze each layer.

People who were

important in early cell
discovery:

Zacharias Jannsen
(1590)

Helped invent the First

compound microscope

Robert Hooke (1665)

Observed dead cork - called them

cells
Compound Microscope

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek

(1674)

- living cells in pond water; one

celled organisms -- animalcules

Robert Brown (1831)

identifies the nucleus of a cell

Mattias Scleiden (1838)

stated that plants are made up of

cells

Theodor Schwann (1839)

stated that animals are made up

of cells

Rudolph Virchow
(1858)

1.
2.

Studied the pathology of cells. (ability to

cause disease)
All cells arise from preexisting cells.
New cells can only arise from other
living cells by the process of cell
division or reproduction

Cell Theory
1.

2.

3.

All living things are composed of

cells
Cells are the fundamental
building block of life
All cells come from pre-existing
cells (life
begets life)

PROCESSES OF
CELLS
All life processes
involve energy changes.
1. Nutrition - food is needed for energy and
building materials.
2. Digestion - breaking down reactions of food into
usable parts.
3. Absorption - water, food, ions and other
materials
4. Biosynthesis - cells organize many organic
substances for cell activity.
5. Respiration - cell energy is released when
certain organic molecules are split - energy is
used for cell activity.

6. Excretion - waste materials passed from cell to

environment
7. Secretion - synthesized molecules which are
passed out of a cell and which affect the
activities of other cells (vitamins, hormones)
8. Reproduction - cells divide; unicellular - more
organisms, multicellular - more cells.
9. Movement - motion of all types; cellular
contractions, flowing substances within the cell
10. Egestion - elimination of insoluble compounds
and nondigestible
particles

Eukaryotic cells advanced

cells

Have nucleus
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm - everything between
plasma membrane and nucleus

Organelles
Fluid

Cytoskeleton threads of microtubules

and microfilaments in cytoplasm

Animal vs Plant Cell

Animal cells have unique structures

Centrioles
Lysosome

Flagellum
1.
2.

3.

Plant cells have unique structures

Large central vacuole

Cell wall
1.
2.
Chloroplasts

3.

Chloroplast

Cytoskeleton
Fibres

Mitochondrion
Mitochondrio
n
Vesicle

Golgi
Body
Smooth
ER

Central
Vacuol
e

Rough
sdfER

Cell
Wall

Plasma
Membrane
Nucleolus
Pore DNA
Envelop
e

Ribosomes

Centriole

Plasma Membrane
OUTSIDE OF CELL

Sugar Chain

Lipid Bilaye

Protein Marker

Cholestero
l
INSIDE OF CELL

Embedded

Proteins

Protein

Cell Membrane Side Profile

Different membranes

All have similar functions & structures

Plasma membrane separates inside of cell
from outside of cell
Other membrane define organelles to form
compartments of eukaryotic cells

Forms a selectively permeable layer

Lets some things in or out but not all

Like a window screen

Nucleus

Nucleus - Structures

Envelope

Chromatin

Double membrane
Pores to get messages in and out
DNA threads
Protein balls called histones - wrapping

Nucleolus - site of ribosome

production

Nucleolus where rRNA or

Ribosomes are made

Ribosomes

Consists of 2 parts, which are made in

nucleus

Make protein in the Cytoplasm

Produce proteins from recipes in the

nucleus copied into mRNA

Some (proteins) will remain in cytoplasm

Some will be exported out of cell
Some will attach to membranes in cell

Ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic

in the cytoplasm
reticulum and

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough
ER
Smooth
ER

Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Rough ER - attached to nucleus

Ribosomes stud surface

Produces

Membrane proteins - stay in cell

Secretory proteins - exported from cell

RER makin Proteins!

Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum

No ribosomes, so not protein factories

More like transport system
Makes steroids, lipids
Liver cells have lots of smooth ER

Detoxify chemicals
Supply and demand

Increases tolerance to drug

So higher doses needed for same effect

Golgi apparatus the Post

Office of the Cell

Golgi apparatus what it

does

Refines, stores and marks molecules for

shipment
Looks like stack of hollow pancakes
Products of ER arrive & leave via
transport vesicles
Moving from one sac to the next

Molecules get modified

Labeled and / or stored

Called the cell Post office because it

marks and directs products in the cell

Lysosome

Lysosome

Greek for breakdown body

Sac of strong digestive enzymes

Recylcer
Compartmentalized for safety
Can release to breakdown entire cell
suicide sack

Functions

Digest food vacuoles

Digest invading bacteria

Digest old organelles

Lysosome

Lysosomal diseases

Genetic disorders
Recipe is messed up so protein doesnt
work
If recipe for lysosome enzyme

What should get broken down doesnt

Ex. Tay Sachs

Lipids arent broken down

Build up occurs
Eventually causes death

Usually in before age 5

Mitochondria

Mitochondria

Site of cellular respiration

Conversion of food into energy (ATP)

Double membrane

ATP is what cells use to make things happen (drive

chemical reactions)

Big bag stuffed in smaller bag

Folds of inner bag called cristae

Space inside inner bag called matrix

Also once free living bacteria
Efficiency - gasoline engines converts 25% of

energy mitochondria
converts 54% of energy

contains some of its own DNA

(amount varies within organisms)
believed to evolved from a
primitive cell engulfing it and
creating a
symbiotic
relationship
DNA in mitochondria obtained
only from mother of organism.

Plant Organelles Chloroplasts

- in plants
Chloroplast
1. chlorophyll is green chemical that releases
electrons, working like a solar panel in
sunlight
2. forms glucose
3. photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2 O ---> C6H12 O6 + 6O2

Chloroplast
s

Structure of Chloroplast
Double membrane
Grana

Stack of thylakoids

Stroma

Hollow disk
Where sunlight energy is captured and converted
to chemical energy
Thick fluid filling chloroplast

Contains some DNA

Once free-living bacteria

Cytoskeleton

Microtubule
s

Actin
filaments

Role of the Cytoskeleton

Network of fibers

Give shape to cells

Allow movement of cell
Move organelles around
Made of microtubules and
microfilaments

Cilia

Flagella

9+2 Arrangment in
Cilia or Flagella

Basal Body of a Flagella or

Cilia

Note the triplet rings of tubulin protein

9+0 arrangement
Nine sets of rings, with no set in middle
up 9+2 arrangment in
cilia or
Used to set

Centrioles

Cell reproduction;
goes to poles of cell
during cell division
and helps cell divide

Centrioles at Work in Cell

Division

Cell Specialization

Different kinds of cells suited for a

different activity.

Division of Labor

Different cells divide their labor

each has a specific function and
supports each other.

Levels of structure

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism

Tissue Level
A group of cells that are alike in structure
and activity in an organism muscles
- Skeletal muscle cells motion
- Cardiac muscle cells heartbeat
- Bones - support
- Nerve cells - coordination,
perception and automatic body

functions

Organ Level
several tissues working as a unit
heart
Animals
brain
stomach

roots
Plants stem
leaf

Organ System
many organs involved in carrying out a function

digestive
nervous
skeletal
excretory
respiratory
endocrine (hormones)
circulatory
muscular
reproductive

INCREASING SIZE

Organism
complete living thing
cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism