Emotions

Introduction

Most people have little problem recognizing and

identifying when they are having an emotion.

However, emotion is one of the most difficult concepts in

Psychology to define.

In fact, emotion is such a difficult concept to define

adequately that there are at least 90 different definitions of
emotions in the scientific literature.

A useful definition is a relatively brief episode of

synchronized evaluative physiological, behavioural,

and subjective responses.

Therefore, inpsychology,philosophy, and their many

subsets, emotionis the generic term
forsubjective,consciousexperience that is
characterized primarily bypsychophysiologicalexpressions, biological reactions,
andmental states.

Emotion is often associated and

consideredreciprocally influential with
mood,temperament,personality,disposition,
andmotivation.

Also emotions are influenced byhormones and

neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline,
serotonin, oxytocin or cortisol.

Emotion is often the driving force behindmotivation,

positive or negative.

In the book "Psychology", Schacter defines emotion

as a "positive or negative experience that is
associated with a particular pattern of physiological
activity."

The term emotion usually is distinguished from

feelings, mood, and affect.

1. Feeling: the subjective experience associated with

an emotion.
2. Mood: an emotional state that is general and
extended in time.
3. Affect: encompasses feelings and mood and
categories of emotion (e.g., positive or negative
affect).

Emotion functions to:

1. Increase, decrease, or regulate arousal
2. Direct perception and attention
3. Influence learning and memory
4. Organize and motivate behaviour
5. Communicate with others
Thephysiologyof emotion is closely linked
toarousalof thenervous systemwith various states
and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to
particular emotions.

Although those acting primarily on emotion may

seem as if they are not thinking,cognitionis an
important aspect of emotion, particularly the
interpretation of events.

For example, the experience of fear usually occurs in

response to a threat.

The cognition of danger and subsequent arousal of

the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and
breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is an integral
component to the subsequent interpretation and
labelling of that arousal as an emotional state.

Emotion is also linked to behavioural tendency.

Neuroscience of
Emotions

Brain Mechanisms -:

Many interrelated brain structures are involved in the

recognition and experience of various emotions, often
loosely defined as the limbic system (Calder, Burton,
Miller, Young, & Akamatsu, 2001).

- Several subcortical structures are important in emotion.

a. Damage to the amygdala impairs recognition and
expression
of fear, anger, and happiness.
b. Damage to the basal ganglia impairs recognition
and
expression of disgust.
- Several areas of the cortex also are important in emotion,
including the prefrontal cortex, posterior cortex, and insula.

Functions of Cerebral Hemispheres

- Right hemisphere
a. High activity is associated with depression and flexion
(avoidant) motions.
b. More active than left hemisphere during displays of many
emotions.
c. Damage often leaves individuals emotionally indifferent and
unable to read many emotions.
- Left hemisphere
a. More active than right during smiling, positive emotions, and
extension (approach) motions.
b. Relatively low activity in the left frontal lobe is associated with
depression.

- Two theories
a. Right-hemisphere theory: Right hemisphere dominant in
all emotional processing.
b. Valence theory: Right hemisphere dominant for negative
emotions; left dominant for positive emotions.

Neuro-endocrinal Systems -

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system controls stress

hormones that facilitate short-term coping with emotional
events.
- Hypothalamus: Brain region that regulates hormonal
functions via the pituitary gland.
- Pituitary gland: Master gland that receives messages
from hypothalamus and relays signals to endocrine glands
to regulate hormones.

- Adrenal glands: Located atop the kidneys; top part (adrenal

cortex) responds to signals from pituitary by releasing stress
hormones such as cortisol into the blood.

The Autonomic Nervous System - controls responses to

cognitive and environmental stimuli that give rise to
emotional responses

The sympathetic nervous system releases norepinephrine

onto peripheral targets (i.e., organs, glands, or muscles) to
prepare the body for vigorous activity (e.g., increased
respiration, sweating, and heartbeat).

The parasympathetic nervous system releases

acetylcholine onto peripheral targets (i.e., organs, glands, or
muscles) to relax the body after the activity is over (e.g.,
slows heartbeat).

Components of Emotion

InScherer'scomponents processing model of emotion,five crucial

elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component
processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that
all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a
short period of time, driven by appraisal processes.

Cognitive appraisal:provides an evaluation of events and

objects

Bodily symptoms:thephysiologicalcomponent of emotional

experience

Action tendencies:amotivationalcomponent for the preparation

and direction of motor responses.

Expression:facialandvocalexpression almost always

accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and
intention of actions.

Feelings:the subjective experience of emotional state once it has

occurred.

Types of Emotions

Basic Emotions - Basic Emotions are the unlearned feelings

(emotions) that are felt by everyone.

According to Ekman, people have a few basic emotions,

analogous to the elements of chemistry. According to a
competing view by Plutchik, emotional feelings occur along two
or more continuous dimensions, such as pleasure vs.
displeasure and activity vs. inactivity.

Among those who accept the idea of basic emotions, this list of
such
emotions is widely agreed to include anger, disgust, fear,
happiness,
sadness, and surprise. Other candidates for the status of basic
emotion include contempt and amusement.

Expression and recognition emerge early in life but continue to

develop through adolescence (Herba, Landau, Russell, Ecker, &
Philllips, 2006).

Two Dimensions of Emotions

Self-conscious and social emotions - Includes emotions

such as shame, guilt, contempt, pride, envy, and empathy.

These emotions fully develop later than basic emotions

because they depend on landmarks in cognitive development,
such as a sense of self and theory of mind.

Refined emotion - A new concept for aspects of emotional

experience that require higher mental processes, such as
higher order awareness (Frijda & Sundararajan, 2007).

Basic and self-conscious emotions are refined through an

abstract, overall sense of things (harmony) or the active
search for harmony and heightened emotional experience
(savouring).

Refined emotions have minimal outward expressions

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event
causes physiological arousal first and then we interpret
this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal
can we experience emotion. If the arousal is not noticed
or is not given any thought, then we will not experience
any emotion based on this event.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.

You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble,
your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.
You notice these physiological changes and interpret
them as your body'spreparation for a fearful situation.
You then experience fear.

Cannon-Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience
physiological arousal and emotional at the same time, but
gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward
behavior.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.

You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble,
your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. At
the same time as these physiological changes occur you
also experience the emotion of fear.

Schachter-Singer Theory
According to this theory, an event causes physiological arousal
first. You must then identify a reason for this arousal and
then you are able to experience and label the emotion.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You
hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your
heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon
noticing this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact
that you are walking down a dark alley by yourself. This
behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of
fear.

Lazarus Theory

Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any

emotion or physiological arousal. In other words, you
must first think about your situation before you can
experience an emotion.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.
You hear footsteps behind you and you think it may be a
mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster,
and your breathing deepens and at the same time
experience fear.

Facial Feedback Theory

According to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the

experience of changes in our facial muscles. In other
words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or
happiness. When we frown, we then experience sadness.
it is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our brains
and provide the basis of our emotions. Just as there are
an unlimited number of muscle configurations in our face,
so to are there a seemingly unlimited number of emotions.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.
You hear footsteps behind you and your eyes widen, your
teeth clench and your brain interprets these facial
changes as the expression of fear. Therefore you
experience the emotion of fear.

Thank You