Year 12 Biology

Dr Esler

Course overview.
Written paper
Short and
long
questions

1 hr 15
mins

The variety
of living
organisms

Written paper

Short
questions
and data
handling
question

1 hr 45
mins

Unit 3

Practical task

Either ISA
task or
practical
exam
50 raw
marks

Unit 1
Biology
and
disease

Unit 2

Practical
assessment

33.3% of total
AS marks

60 raw
marks
46.7% of total
AS marks

85 raw
marks

20% of total
AS marks

Term 1 / unit 1 topics

Pathogens

Absorption

Lifestyle

Osmosis

Digestion

Active transport

Proteins

Lung structure

Enzymes

Lung disease

Cells structure/function

Heart
structure/function/dise
ase

Cell membrane

Immunology

Diffusion

Data analysis

1.Causes of diseasePathogens
Define disease and pathogens
Describe how pathogens may enter the body
Explain how pathogens produce disease
symptoms
disease

Caused by

Infectious?

Microorganisms as
pathogens

Are there any other types

of organisms that are also
pathogens?

(Not these)

Eg Parasitic worms

How do microorganisms
gain entry?
Use page 5 to complete the table..
Entry point

Typical diseases Natural defence

Symptoms of disease..
2 main causes Damaging host tissue
Production of toxins
Often a range of symptoms arise
symptoms of disease

Data, disease and

correlations
Recognise how data can be misleading
Understand the difference between correlation
and causation
Develop a critical approach when examining
data in the media

Correlation is not
causation!
Use the information on pages 6+7 to explain this
statement

Data deception.

Data
What would worry you more: being told that
deception
cancer kills 25 people out of 100, or that it kills
250 people out of 1000? Dumb question, you
might say; both statements mean that a quarter
of people die of cancer.
Yet such differences do matter - not to the risk
itself, but to our perception of it. Those wishing to
play up or play down a risk, whether to sell
newspapers or a medical treatment, can follow
the simple rule of "ratio bias". The bigger the
number, the riskier the risk appears.

 the Harvard School of Public Health has just

produced a study showing the risk of heart
disease goes up by 42 per cent with every 56gram serving of processed meat. It sounds
extraordinarily high, but on closer inspection isn't.
Compare it with smoking, which raises the risk of
cancer by 20 times - that is, 2000 per cent. A 42
per cent rise is small, in epidemiological terms,
and could have been thrown up by a bias. But
there isn't a bias in the world that could produce a
2000 per cent increase.

 Remember newspapers aim to sell as many

copies as possible so will usually aim for the most
dramatic headline.
Imagine a disease that is rare but lethal.a
headline will not say that the number of affected
people has increased from 4 to 5 (out of a
population of 60 million) But rather will say

25%
increase
in
new
killer
Be wary of relative data rather than absolute data ie the
actual or absolute numbers involved
disease

Why smart people believe

dumb things..
1. Randomness- seeing patterns where there
is only random noise
We have an innate desire to see order in chaosfaces in clouds, gamblers with runs of luck etc
Consider a batsman hitting runs. X=hit O=miss
Does this sequence indicate a winning streak..
OXXXOXXXOXXOOOXOOXXOO
In fact this is a random sequence even though
there appears to be some order.

2. Regression to the mean- seeing causal

relationships where there are none.
When a certain measurement is at its extreme, it is
likely to return to a middle value or regress to the
mean
Imagine someone visits a homeopath when their
back pain is at its worst. The pain will get better
regardless of the visit because when things are at
their worst, they generally do. However it is easy to
see why the improvement might be ascribed to the
treatment
Often we are to oversensitive to spotting causal
relationships.

 3 We are more biased towards positive

evidence and our prior beliefs
If we already believe a particular hypothesis, we will
look for positive evidence to confirm it. The
questions we might ask will elicit information that
will confirm our original theory.
Flaws in experimental design are downplayed if the
results support existing views. Some alternative
medical therapies use vague anecdotal data but
ignore systematic reviews carried out by scientists.

4. Availability (when information is made

more available)
Our attention is always drawn to the exceptional
and the interesting. High availability stories in
the media are dramatic, associated with strong
emotion and lend themselves to memorable
visual imagery. They are concrete and tangible
rather than abstract. Miracle cures, scare stories
and distressed parents all add to availability.
People are more afraid of sharks at the beach
than they are of flying to Florida for example.

Social influences

Our values (what we believe in) are socially reinforced by

conformity and by the company we keep. We expose ourselves
to situations where are beliefs are confirmed. Communal
reinforcement is the process by which a claim becomes a
strong belief through repeated assertion by members of a
community.
This partly explains why statements from therapists, celebrities,
politicians talk show hosts and so on can become more powerful
than scientific evidence.
We tend to assume that positive characteristics cluster; people
who are attractive must also be good; people who seem kind
might also be intelligent and well-informed. (The behaviour of
sporting teams which wear black is rated as more aggressive
and unfair than teams which wear white)
There are many other examples of bias- we have a
disproportionately high opinion of ourselves. A large majority of
the public think they are more fair-minded, less prejudiced,
more intelligent and better drivers that the average.

Lifestyle and health

Define the term risk
Consider risk factor associated with cancer and
CHD

P 8-13

What is risk?

Risk is a measurement of the

probability that damage to health
will occur as a result of given
hazards.

Lifestyle factors that contribute to

cancer include:
Smoking
Diet: what we eat and drink affects risk. A
low-fat, High fibre diet, rich in fruit and
vegetables, reduce risk.
Obesity: being overweight
Lack of physical activity
Sunlight
Reducing risk of cancer and CHD
Giving up smoking
Avoid becoming overweight
Reducing salt intake
Reducing intake of cholesterol and
saturated fats in diet
Regular aerobic exercise
Increase intake of dietary fibres and
antioxidants.

Evidence
Page 11/12 Use the information to complete the table below
Epidemiological
(correlation)

Experimental (causation)

assessment.
Pages 14-17 questions 1-5

Enzymes and the

digestive system
What is the
purpose of
digestion?

Page 18-19
Task

Choose one part of the digestive

system.
Make a brief presentation to the
class on the area you have
chosen.
What does it do? How is its
structure adapted to this
function?

What is meant by physical and chemical

digestion?

carbohydrases
proteins
Fatty acids
+glycerol

Carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen.
Carbohydrates

Write down as many things as

you can remember about
carbohydrates
or glucose in particular

Carbohydrates
1 Monosaccharides
Give an overview of carbohydrate
structure and function
Describe the structure of
monosaccharide carbohydrates

 Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

Simple sugars are named according to

the number of carbon atoms they
possess
C3 triose

Triose
phosphate
rare

C5 pentose
glucose

Energy source

The basic unit or monomer is the monosaccharide

eg glucose C6H12O6

Glucose is white, sweet tasting and

crystalline, highly soluble

Glucose is an abundant and very important

monosaccharide. It contains six carbon atoms so
it is a hexose sugar. Its general formula is
C6H12O6.
Glucose is the major energy source for most
cells. It is highly soluble and is the main form in
which carbohydrates are transported around the
body of animals. Can be represented in several
ways:

Or even
simpler

Glucose exists in different forms called structural

isomers. Two common isomers are alpha
glucose and beta glucose
alpha

beta

The only difference between these two isomers is

the position of the OH group attached to carbon 1.
In alpha glucose it is below the carbon and in beta
glucose it is above the carbon.
This minor structural difference has a major effect
on the biological roles of alpha and beta glucose.

Two other important hexose monosaccharides

are fructose and galactose.

fructose
galactose

Fructose is very soluble and is the main sugar in fruits and

nectar. It is sweeter than glucose.
Galactose is not as soluble as glucose and has an important
role in the production of glycolipids and glycoproteins

Testing for reducing sugars

Benedicts test

All monosaccharides are reducing sugars. This

means they can donate electrons, in this case to
Benedicts Reagent which becomes reduced and
changes colour. The extent of the colour change
can be used to estimate the concentration of
the sugar present.

Summarise the practical steps when carrying

out the Benedicts test. p21
You have been provided with 3 unknown samples of
glucose solutions. Arrange these in order of relative
concentration.
sample

Colour change

Relative
concentration

Carbohydrates
2. Disaccharides and
Polysaccharides
Describe how monosaccharides join to form
disaccharides
Explain how starch may be formed from alpha
glucose

OMG
!

Disaccharides are formed when two

monosaccharides join together.
A molecule of water is produced in this
CONDENSATION reaction

Maltose (malt sugar) is formed

from two glucose molecules
joined by an alpha 14
glycosidic bond.
Sucrose (table sugar) is formed
from glucose and fructose
joined by an alpha 14
glycosidic bond

Lactose (milk sugar) is formed

from galactose and glucose
joined by a beta 14 glycosidic
bond

Disaccharides form
Polysaccharides

Starch

 Good for storage (its compact!)

Starch is insoluble due to its
structure so no osmotic effect.
It is therefore the main plant
storage compound

Cellulose.. A polysaccharide of Bglucose

A structural
carbohydrate
found in plant
cell walls

O
O

O
Hydrogen bonds form between chains

When a molecule of
water is lost in a reaction

glycogen

Two glucose molecules

reducing sugars

Milk sugar

isomers

The bond between

monosaccharides

cellulose

All monosaccharides
are.

lactose

Animal storage
carbohydrate

condensation

Different forms of
glucose

maltose

A structural
polysaccharide

glycosidic

When a molecule of
water is lost in a reaction

condensation

Two glucose molecules

maltose

Milk sugar

lactose

The bond between

monosaccharides

glycosidic

All monosaccharides
are.

Reducing sugars

Animal storage
carbohydrate

glycogen

Different forms of
glucose

isomers

A structural
polysaccharide

cellulose

Make a flow diagram to show how nonreducing sugars may be detected. P23
Now use this scheme to test sugar
samples A, B and C. Which are nonreducing sugars?
Homework
Find out what is meant by
polysaccharides
Describe the formation and function
of STARCH.

Summary questions 23 Q1-3

Using page 24 to assist,

make a storyboard to
show how starch digestion
occurs in humans. Include
the location, enzymes
involved and the
substrates and products.

Carbohydrate digestion
Describe the action of salivary amylase in
digesting starch
Summarize the location and action of other
carbohydrases

Homework
Research the topic of
lactose intolerance. What does
this mean? What are the
symptoms and possible
remedies?

Proteins
Describe the structure of amino acids
Explain how amino acids join to form
primary, secondary and tertiary proteins

All amino acids (20) have the same general

structure: the only difference between each one is
the nature of the R group. The R group therefore
defines an amino acid.

carboxylic
acid group

amino
group

R group

Make a flow diagram to show how

two amino acids join by
condensation to make a PEPTIDE
bond.

When two or more amino acids join through

peptide bonds, a PRIMARY STRUCTURE
results.
The primary structure is the sequence of
amino acids determined by the base
sequence in DNA. The number and type of
amino acids will determine protein structure
and function.

Secondary structure of proteins occurs

when the primary chain undergoes further
modifications and strengthening bond
formation.

collagen the main

component of connective
tissue such as ligaments,
tendons, cartilage.

keratin the main component

of hard structures such as hair,
nails, claws and hooves

Tertiary proteins- further

modifications of the primary and
secondary structures results in a 3D
tertiary structure.
As well as peptide bonds, there are
disulphide bridges, ionic bonds and
The chains are
hydrogen
bonds
usually
folded so
that hydrophobic
groups are on the
inside, while the
hydrophilic groups
are on the outside.
This makes many
globular proteins
soluble in water.

Some proteins are made from several

chains coiled together or have a nonprotein group included eg haemoglobin.
These are called

Quaternary Proteins

Prac: chromatography of egg albumin; biuret

test

TASK
Discuss the structure of collagen.
How is it suited to its function? Use
p29 for guidance

Make a dicotymous key to identify

carbohydrate and protein molecules. Use
features such as elements present, size
reaction with Benedicts, type of bond
present etc

Enzyme action
State that enzymes are globular proteins, with a
specific tertiary structure, which catalyse metabolic
reactions in living organisms.
Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the mechanism
of action of enzyme molecules with reference to
specificity, active site, lock and key hypothesis,
induced-fit hypothesis, enzymesubstrate
complex, enzymeproduct complex and lowering
of activation energy.

Pineapple; jelly

hydrogen peroxide

What do we mean by
METABOLISM?

What do we mean by
METABOLISM?
The sum of all chemical reactions within a living
organism is known as metabolism.
Metabolism is a combination of catabolism (breaking
down) and anabolism (building up)
Catabolism refers to chemical reactions that result in the
breakdown of more complex organic molecules into simpler
substances.
Catabolic reactions usually release energy that is used to drive
chemical reactions.
Anabolism refers to chemical reactions in which simpler
substances are combined to form more complex molecules.
Anabolic reactions usually require energy.
Enzymes
are involved
in both
branches
Anabolic
reactions
build new
molecules
and/orof
store energy.

Enzymes are catalysts that lower activation

energy without themselves undergoing any
change.

Lock and Key model of enzyme

action
How is this different to the
Induced Fit model?

Distribute diagrams of an enzyme colliding with a

substrate through to the products being formed.
Students must summarise the stages as a series of
bullet points.

Give students a series of cards to play snap with. A snap

pair consists of a diagram on one card and a
corresponding explanation on the other.

P32 summary questions

Factors affecting enzyme

action
Describe and explain the effects of: pH, temperature, enzyme
concentration and substrate concentration on enzyme activity
Apply the lock and key model to explain experimental findings

P33-35

Why are enzymes in washing powder are often obtained

from thermophilic bacteria (bacteria that live in hot
springs).

Remember.
Many think that all enzymes work best at 35 - 40C
and denature above 40C. This isnt true. Many
enzymes work best at well above 40C pepsin
works best at 60C and phosphatase from bean
sprouts works best at 55C. However they can also
work at lower temperatures and it is not efficient to run
bodies at 60C and it would damage other structures
other proteins and phospholipids.
What sort of bonds would you expect to find holding
the tertiary structure of a heat stable enzyme in place
(A: SS bonds).

Factors affecting enzyme actio

n

Enzyme inhibition
Explain the effects of competitive and non-competitive inhibitors
on the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions
Describe one role of enzyme inhibition in metabolism

P36 In pairs, convert a written description of each type of

inhibition into a set of labelled diagrams

(Km is the concentration of substrate

that leads to half-maximal velocity.
Km = 1/2 Vmax)

Uses of enzyme inhibition.

1. Controlling metabolic pathways ( end point inhibition)

Q 1-4 p37
Find out about how enzyme inhibitors
have been used in drugs and poisons

Cell structure and organisation

Investigating cell structure
Clarify the difference between magnification and
resolution
Explain the technique of cell fractionation

Cells ali
ve
The magnification of an object is how many times bigger the
image is compared to the original object. X 10 X3000 X0.5
etc
Before any calculations are performed, make sure all the units
are the same.

Resolution is the minimum distance apart two objects can

be in order for them to appear as separate structures.
The wavelength of light used to illuminate the specimen
determines resolving power. Increasing magnification does
not increase resolution.
What is the resolving power of a light and an electron
microscope?
Cell fractionation- a technique used to isolate cell
components (organelles)
What is a cold isotonic buffered solution ? P41
Summarize the steps on page 41 in flow diagram
Summary questions 1-7

The electron microscope

Outline how an electron microscope functions
Distinguish between different types of electron
microscope
Describe limitations of producing images using these
tools.

Summarize the main differences between transmission and

scanning electron microscopes. What are the main limitations of
both?
Scanning
or
transmission?

Cell structure
Describe the structure and function of
major cell organelles

Use headings from

your text book to
makes notes on the
organelles listed.
Include their size
and function..
eukaryotes
H/W p143 Q14

Prokaryotescells without a nuclear

membrane
Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, mitochondria, or
any other membrane-bound organelles. In other words,
all their intracellular water-soluble components
(proteins, DNA and metabolites) are located together
in the same volume enclosed by the cell membrane,
rather than in separate cellular compartments.
Prokaryotes include two major classification domains: the
bacteria and the archaea. Archaea were recognized as a
domain of life in 1990. These organisms were originally
thought to live only in inhospitable conditions such as
extremes of temperature, pH, and radiation but have since
been found in all types of habitats.
The genome in a prokaryote is held within a DNA/protein
complex in the cytosol called the nucleoid, which lacks a
nuclear envelope. The complex contains a single, cyclic,
double-stranded molecule of stable chromosomal DNA, in
contrast to the multiple linear, compact, highly organized

Comparing
eukaryotes
and
prokaryotes
See table p 65

Lipids
Describe the structure of a triglyceride
State how phospholipids differ in structure and property
to triglycerides

What are the main functions of lipids in

living organisms?

Summary questions 1-3 p51

How do these diagrams explain the differences

between butter and margarine?

Cell-surface membrane
Describe the structure of the cell surface membrane
with reference to the Fluid mosaic model
State the functions of the membrane components

Write out the meaning of as many terms as possible from

the diagram

How could the phospholipid molecules

arrange themselves so that a stable layer is
formed that can interact with the waterbased environment inside and outside the
cell?
What do the proteins do?
Fat soluble
molecule

Intact
membrane

8.1

Charged or
large
molecule
7.2

Protein
8.0
0.3
component
Relative
rate of substances crossing a cell membrane
removed

How do hormones know which cells to target?

Fluid mosaic model

Diffusion
State what we mean by diffusion
Describe the factors that affect the rate of diffusion
Explain the special case of facilitated diffusion

The movement of particles in a gas or liquid from a region

of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Since no energy input is involved, the movement is
PASSIVE.

(Multimedia for
sci)
(permanganate demo

In what direction will the perfume

particles move?

What affects the rate of diffusion?

P55 Can you give an example of how one organ
system in the body optimises each of these
factors?

Facilitated diffusion-

helping diffusion to
occur by means of protein channels and carrier
molecules in the cell membrane

Osmosisdiffusion of water
molecules
Define what is meant by water potential
Explain osmosis using water potential
gradients

How is this cell dependent

on osmosis in order to
perform its function?

How do plant and animal cells behave

as a result of osmosis?

What will happen

in plant cells?

Describe and explain, using labelled

diagrams, the effect on a plant cell of placing
tissue in a hypertonic and hypotonic
solutions.
Use the terms turgid, flaccid, plasmolysed
and incipient plasmolysis

summar
y

Movement using energy.Active

Transport
Define the process of active transport and the role of
ATP
Identify the parts of the cell membrane involved with
active transport

Explain what is happening in each of these 3

diagrams

Absorption in the small

intestine
Identify the location and structures involved in
mammalian glucose absorption
Describe and explain the mechanism involved in
glucose absorption

microvilli

Use page 63 to identify how the structures above

increase the efficiency of absorption.

Active transport is also involved in glucose transport. P64

summarize the steps involved in this mechanism.
Summary questions 1-3.

Cholera

Recall the structure of prokaryotes

Describe and explain the causes and symptoms of the
disease, Cholera

Vibrio cholerae
What are
the main
features of
prokaryotes

The main symptoms are watery diarrhea and vomiting. This

may result in dehydration and in severe cases grayishbluish skin. Transmission occurs primarily by drinking water
or eating food that has been contaminated by the faeces
(waste product) of an infected person, including one with
no apparent symptoms.
The severity of the diarrhea and vomiting can lead to rapid
dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, and death in some
cases. The primary treatment is oral rehydration therapy,
typically with oral rehydration solution, to replace water
and electrolytes. If this is not tolerated or does not provide
improvement fast enough, intravenous fluids can also be
used. Antibacterial drugs are beneficial in those with severe
disease to shorten its duration and severity.
Worldwide, it affects 35 million people and causes
100,000130,000 deaths a year as of 2010.

Cholera toxin (also known as

choleragen and sometimes
abbreviated to CTX, Ctx, or CT) is a
protein complex secreted by the
bacterium Vibrio cholerae
How does producing this toxin
help the survival of the

Use the information on pages 66+67 to make a flow chart

showing how the symptoms of cholera are produced.
Summary questions 1-4 p67

Oral rehydration
therapy

Descibe the need for rehydration following diarrhoea

Explain the components of rehydration medicines and
their testing prior to release

Make a table to show the ingredients of a rehydrating

solution. Why is giving water alone insufficient? p68

component

function

What were the problems associated with developing rehydrating

solutions?
Summarize the steps involved in testing a new drug.
Summary questions 1-4
p69

Lungs and lung disease

Describe the structures involved in human gas
exchange (lungs)

Use the information on page 75 to describe the main parts of

the lungs.
Summary questions 1-3

Mechanism of breathing
Identify the muscles and movements involved
in lung movements
Calculate pulmonary ventilation

Ventilation of the lungs occurs as a result of pressure

changes. These changes are brought about by the
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm

Summarize the steps taken during inspiration and

expiration p76/77

Lung ventilation

Summary questions 1-4 p77

Tidal volume
(dm3)

Ventilation
rate (min-1)

0.5

12

.63

14

Pulmonary
ventilation (dm3
min-1)

Exchange of gases in the

lungs
Summarize the features of gas exchange
surfaces
Recall the structure and function of the
alveoli
Newt larva

What are the features of these external gills that allow for efficient
gas exchange?

Gas exchange
Summary questions p 79 1-2

Lung disease- pulmonary

tuberculosis
Describe the causes, transmission and control of TB
TB is caused by
one of two
species of rod
shaped bacteriaMycobacterium
tuberculosis or
Mycobacterium
bovis

Use information from the video and from pages 80 and 81 to

make a brief summary of important points on TB.
Use the headings
Causes/symptoms
Transmission
Development of the disease
Control

Bacillus CalmetteGurin (historically

Vaccin Bili de Calmette et Gurin
commonly referred to as BCG) is a
vaccine against tuberculosis that is
prepared from a strain of the
attenuated (virulence-reduced) live
bovine tuberculosis bacillus,
Mycobacterium bovis
The UK introduced universal BCG
immunization in 1953, and until 2005,
the UK policy was to immunize all
school children at the age of 13, and all
neonates born into high-risk groups.

Lung disease- fibrosis, asthma

and emphysema
Describe and explain the causes and symptoms of specific noninfectious lung diseases

Summarize the causes and symptoms of these 3 lung

diseases. Include data on frequency. Include table 1 page 84.
Questions 1-3 p 84.

Structure of the heart

Describe the structure of the heart and associated
blood vessels

Look at fig 1 page 88.

What causes the
fluctuations at the start
of the graph?

Heart surgery

Blood flow

Summary questions 1-4

p89

The cardiac cycle

Describe the events of the cardiac cycle
Explain pressure changes in a cardiac cycle graph
Describe the nerve signals that initiate and regulate the
cycle.

How will you remember that diastole means relax and systole
means contract?

Heart valves prevent the backflow of

blood..

Heart sounds
!

Graph of the cardiac cycle showing pressure and volume

changes

Summary
questions 1-5
p93

Heart disease
Identify common heart diseases
Explain the effect of risk factors on the onset of heart disease
Myocardial infarction (MI; or acute myocardial infarction
(AMI) is the medical term for an event commonly known as a
heart attack. An MI occurs when blood stops flowing properly
to a part of the heart, and the heart muscle is injured because it
is not receiving enough oxygen. Usually this is because one of
the coronary arteries that supplies blood to the heart develops a
blockage due to an unstable build up of white blood cells,
cholesterol and fat.
The event is called "acute" if it is sudden and serious.

Summarize the 4 main

heart conditions p94/5

Atheromabuild up of fatty deposit in the wall of

an artery in the heart.
An atheroma is an accumulation of degenerative material in the
tunica intima (inner layer) of artery walls. The material consists of
(mostly) macrophage cells, or debris, containing lipids
(cholesterol and fatty acids), calcium and a variable amount of
fibrous connective tissue. The accumulated material forms a
swelling in the artery wall, which may intrude into the channel of
the artery, narrowing it and restricting blood flow.

Atheroma can then lead to two further conditions- thrombosis

and aneurysm

Thrombosis..a blood clot develops that

eventually blocks the artery

Aneurysm...balloon-like swelling due to a

weakening of artery walls

Risk factors associated with heart disease.

Smoking
High blood pressure
Blood cholesterol
Diet

Uses pages 95 +96 to fully explain how these factors

increase the risk of developing heart disease

Summary questions 1-2 p96; page 97 questions 1-3

and 1

Immunity
Describing our non-specific and specific defence
mechanisms

Use fig 2 page 101 to become familiar with some of the

main terms involved in understanding immunity

Organisation of cells,
tissues , organs and organ
systems
Clarify some examples of tissue
specialisation
Outline the organisation of named organ
systems in the human body

A tissue consists of cells of a similar type.

4

main types:
Epithelial cells
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue

Complete the table on epithelial tissues using p144 include a

diagram
Tissue type
Location and function
Squamous epithelium

Summary questions 1+2

P145

One becomes
two..
Describe the structure a chromosome following DNA replication
Explain events of the cell cycle

See someone grow

46

46

46

If the chromosome number remains the same

at the end of cell division, what must be
happening to the DNA in the parent cell?

Different species
have different
numbers of
chromosomes.
Humans have 46,
chickens have 78,
goldfish have 94
and fruit flies, 8.

Why are the chromosomes

arranged in pairs?

Homologous pairs
Chromosomes come in pairs with the
same size, shape and banding pattern.
These homologous pairs are the result of
sexual reproduction and the homologous
pairs are the maternal and paternal
versions of the same chromosome so
they have the same sequence of genes.

Chromoso
me
structure

DNA replication

 Now each chromosome consists of a pair of

identical chromatids joined at the centromere.
The amount of DNA has doubled prior to cell
division.

A All the chromosomes

displayed

histone

B All the material in a

nucleus

chromatids

C Matching chromosomes

6 feet

D Enzyme used in DNA

replication

karyoytpe

E The length of DNA in a

human cell

5
Homologous
chromosomes

F Sister.

G Cell dividing

7
polymerase

H Protein beads on a
chromosome

8
cytokinesis

chromatin
DNA

A All the chromosomes

displayed

karyoytpe

B All the material in a

nucleus

chromatin

C Matching chromosomes

5
Homologous
chromosomes

D Enzyme used in DNA

replication

7
polymerase

E The length of DNA in a

human cell

F Sister.

2
chromatids

G Cell dividing

8
cytokinesis

H Protein beads on a
chromosome

DNA
6 feet

histone

Cell Cycle
The process of Mitosis refers to the chromosomes
dividing and moving to opposite ends of the cell.
Before this can happen, the cell must prepare
itself and check for copying errors.
The cell cycle is the series of events that take
place as the cells grow and divide. In average this
process takes about 24 hours for cells in
mammals.

Cell cycle animation!

Mitosis
Describe the cellular events of mitosis
Describe how to prepare a root tip for mitosis
examination

Cytokinesis in
plant cells

Asexual reproduction
making natural clones
Outline advantages and disadvantages of
asexual reproduction
State examples of asexual reproduction
producing natural clones
1. Binary fission.two new individuals formed. Occurs in
simplest organisms such as bacteria and Amoeba

2. Producing spores common in fungi and mosses

3. Regenerationanimals that can regrow parts that

have been lost eg lizards regenerating a tail

4. Buddinga small outgrowth or bud develops from a

mature cell. This breaks off and grows into a new
individual (clone) Common in Yeast and Hydra. (the bud
is asymmetrical to distinguish the process from
budding)

5. New plant structuresvegetative reproduction. Only

involves mitotic divisions.
Can develop from a range of plant parts such as stems,
leaves etc. commonly used by gardeners to increase plant
numbers.

 Some animals are able to reproduce without

fertilisation. This is called . One example relates to
the Komodo dragon

Growth.. permanent increase in

cell number, size or mass
Outline the difficulties in measuring growth in
living organisms
Describe a range of growth patterns

Because organisms do not grow uniformly, measuring height,

head circumference etc can be misleading. Dry mass is the
most accurate method.

(1) A reliable measure of the biomass (as opposed to

fresh mass).
(2) The dry matter of a sample or of an object when
completely dried (lacks or excluding water).
Dry mass is a more reliable measure of mass than
fresh mass because the former excludes the
fluctuating water concentrations in the biological
material measured which is present in the fresh mass.
Main disadvantage is that the organism must be killed.

Insects grow in
stages as they
undergo
moulting at
each stage

Humans grow in stages that merge together. Rapid growth by

mitosis occurs in the early stages and puberty.

Meiosishalving
chromosome number to
make
gametes
Outline the
events of meiosis
Describe how meiosis results in genetic variation

In meiosis,
there are two
phases of
chromosome
movement
each with 4
stages.
Meiosis 1
separates
Homologous
pairs which
have come
together, while
meiosis 2
separates the
chromatids as
in mitosis.

During metaphase
1, homologous
chromosomes
come together and
exchange genetic
material.

Gametogenesis
making gametes
Describe and compare the process of
gametogenesis in males and females
Explain structural adaptations in sperm and
ova

Use the information on page 160 to complete the table

below
spermatogenesi oogenesis
s
location
When
gametogenesis
starts
Number of
gametes made
per primary
spermatocyte/ooc
yte
Polar bodies
made?
When is meiosis
completed

Sperm cells

Zona pellucida -This

structure binds sperm and
is required to initiate the
acrosome reaction. It
surrounds the egg cell
membrane

Gametogenesis in plants

Pollen is produced by meiosis in the anthersa pollen

microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form
haploid microspores.

The male
gamete is
produced by
mitosis of the
generative
nucleus.

Inside the ovule,

the female
gamete
develops.
Following
meiosis, one
haploid cell
divides 3 times
by mitosis to
produce 8
haploid cells.
One of these is
the female
gamete.
Double fertilisat
ion

Fertilisation...in humans
Recall the events at fertilisation
Describe the role of the acrosome
1. Released ovum is known
as a secondary oocyte
2. Protected by the zona
pellucida
3. Several sperm complete
the acrosome reaction
p165
4. Penetration of the sperm
stimulates second meiotic
division producing haploid
egg nucleus.
5. Ion channels open so the
inside of the egg becomes
positively charged
6. As a result, no further
sperm gain entry
7. Fertilisation membrane

8. Tail is left outside while the head

swells with water releasing its
chromosomes

Following fertilisation.....
Outline the events following animal fertilisation
Explain the terms totipotent and pluripotent

216
different
cell types
must
develop
from a
single
fertilised
egg.

Totipotency is the ability of a single cell to divide and

produce all of the differentiated cells in an organism; a
zygote is one example. Totipotency represents the cell
with the greatest differentiation potential.
1. Cleavage. Occurs by mitosis although no interphase
exists at this early stage.
2. Small mass of identical cells develops resulting in a
hollow sphere called blastocyst. Develops as the zygote
moves along the oviduct.
3. The cells can now be referred to as embryonic stem
cells. The outer cells of the blastocyst form the placenta.
The inner cells can now form many of the required cell
types- but not all. These cells are pluripotent.

Cell determination means the process that decides what type of

cell an embryonic cell will eventually become. Depends on its

Cell differentiation depends on which parts of the DNA moleule

are expressed to make proteins. Transcription factors will
determine the genes to be expressed.

Totipotent cells..
Describe the uses of totipotent cells in plants
and animals

Plant cells remain totipotent

throughout their life.
Plant cell cloning is commonplace. Rare plants such as orchids
are reproduced from cuttings/ tissue culture. Animal cells
remain totipotent for a short time only before becoming
pleuipotent. Once fully differentiated their lose all ability to
form different cell types.

and animal cells.....

Embryo splitting in cattle

Embryo splitting is a
technique of increasing
the numbers of
favoured breeds.
Unrelated species can
be used as surrogate
mothers for a short
time before the
developing embryo is
removed

Cell differentiation
Describe how gene expression is controlled to
produce differentiated cells

Controlling expression usually involves switching genes on or off.

This requires transcription factors that cause unwinding of specific
parts of the DNA molecule. Hormones in development can influence
the activity of transcription factors.
If transcription does
occur, the M-RNA can be inactivated using
p173

Stem cells
Outline the properties and sources of human stem cells
Describe the possible uses of stem cells in stem cell
therapy

Stem cells have the potential to develop into many different

cell types in the body during early life and growth. In many
tissues they serve as a sort of internal repair system, dividing
essentially without limit to replenish other cells as long as the
person or animal is still alive. When a stem cell divides, each
new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become
another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a
muscle
a red blood
cell,
or a (hESCs)
brain cell.are generated by
Humancell,
embryonic
stem
cells
transferring cells from a preimplantation-stage embryo into a
laboratory culture dish that contains a nutrient broth known as
culture medium. The cells divide and spread over the surface of
the dish. Embryonic stem cells that have proliferated in cell
culture for for a prolonged period of time without differentiating,
are pluripotent, and have not developed genetic abnormalities
are referred to as an embryonic stem cell line.

To generate cultures of specific types of differentiated cells

heart muscle cells, blood cells, or nerve cells, for example
scientists try to control the differentiation of embryonic stem cells.
They change the chemical composition of the culture medium,
alter the surface of the culture dish, or modify the cells by
inserting specific genes. Through years of experimentation,
scientists have established some basic protocols or "recipes" for
the directed differentiation of embryonic stem cells into some
specific cell types

An adult stem cell is thought to be an undifferentiated cell,

found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ that can
renew itself and can differentiate to yield some or all of the major
specialized cell types of the tissue or organ. The primary roles of
adult stem cells in a living organism are to maintain and repair the
tissue in which they are found.
Scientists have found adult stem cells in many more tissues than
they once thought possible. This finding has led researchers and
clinicians to ask whether adult stem cells could be used for
transplants. In fact, adult hematopoietic, or blood-forming, stem
cells from bone marrow have been used in transplants for 40
years. Scientists now have evidence that stem cells exist in the
brain and the heart. If the differentiation of adult stem cells can
be controlled in the laboratory, these cells may become the basis
of transplantation-based therapies.

Stem cell cloning

Used as a possible therapy in diseases such as
Type 1 diabetes or Alzheimers disease
Nucleus removed from patients body cell
Nucleus transferred to empty egg cell followed
by a small electric shock to initiate embryo
development.
Stem cells harvested from the developing embryo
and following differentiation into the required
cells, given to patient without risk of rejection.

Interactions between genes and the

environment
Describe examples of how the environment can affect gene
expression

Use the information on page 186 to help explain the

typical colouring of Siamese cats. How is the environment
affecting coat colour?

Lac operon