Introduction to Plasma

What is a plasma?
The fourth state of matter
A partially ionized gas

How is a plasma created?

Energy must be added to a gas in the form of:
Heat: Temperatures must be in excess of 4000 OC
Radiation
Electric Field
Magnetic Field

Examples of Common Plasmas:

Stars are almost entirely composed of plasma
this makes plasma the dominant state of matter in the
universe
Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights), Lightning

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma

In practice, a plasma is a gaseous

medium containing:

neutral gas atoms or molecules

ions (atoms with a charge)
free radicals (highly reactive molecules)
electrons
photons (massless particles of light)

The net charge is zero:

# of positively charged particles =
# of negatively charged particles

The Relative number of charged species is very

low:
~ 1,000,000 neutral particles for every charged
particle (ion)

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Glow Discharge:
A plasma is identified by a visible glow.
The color of the glow is dependent on the gasses
present in the chamber.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Why Plasma?
Light Generation: Fluorescent light bulbs, Neon lights.
Low Temperature Chemical Reactions
Creation of Unique Materials
that could not be accomplished via ordinary chemical means.
Accelerated Chemical Reactions for greater throughput processing.
Highly Directional Processes: anisotropic etching.
More Efficient Energy Utilization
Less Waste Product Generation

Industrial Applications:

Aerospace industry
Communications industry
Public utilities
Wide variety of manufacturing industries

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Plasma Formation:
1. begins with neutral gas particles (atoms or molecules)
2. there are also some free electrons present
the presence of heat energy generates more free electrons
3. an electric field is introduced that accelerates the free
electrons
4. the accelerated free electrons collide with neutral gas
molecules
5. following the collision, one of three things can happen:
a. dissociation
b. ionization
c. excitation

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Dissociation: (plasma chemistry)
Gas molecules are broken down into smaller fragments called Free Radicals:
M + e- => M1 + M2 + e Free radicals are high-energy chemical species.
Although they are electrically neutral, they are unstable.
They readily react with other substances in order to achieve a more stable
configuration.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Dissociation:
In the example shown, the free radical Cl is generated. The stable state of chlorine is Cl 2.
Since Cl (by itself) is
unstable, it readily reacts
with aluminum as follows:
Al(s) + 3Cl(g) AlCl3 (g)
This is an aluminum etch

Fall 2004

process.

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Dissociation:
The reverse process of Dissociation is called Recombination.
If they are not used up in other chemical reactions, the free radicals will spontaneously recombine to resume their more stable states:
CCl3 + Cl CCl4
Free Radicals are the useful products of a plasma that are used in:
Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD)
outcome of the chemical reaction is a solid
Plasma Etching and Plasma Cleaning
outcome of the chemical reaction is a vapor

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Ionization:
Electron(s) are knocked loose from a neutral atom or molecule
M + e- => M+ + 2e The resultant positively
charged particles are
called ions.
Since they carry an
electric charge, ions can
be manipulated by an
electric field.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Ionization:
As an example, in a typical sputtering operation, Argon (Ar) gas is introduced into a vacuum chamber. A plasma is then ignited.
The ionization process that occurs is described by the equation:
e- + Ar 2e- + Ar+
The positive argon ions
are attracted to the
negatively charged target
in a sputtering system.
When they strike the
target, a vapor is created
that deposits on the wafer.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Impact Ionization:
In the equation on the previous slide, it should be noted that there are now TWO free electrons, following the collision.
This doubles the
available electrons
for ionization.
This ongoing
doubling process is
called "impact
ionization.
Impact ionization is
what sustains a
plasma.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Ionization:
The reverse process of Ionization is also called Recombination.
If they are not absorbed by the wafer or target, the ions will spontaneously recombine to become neutral atoms again.
e- + Ar+ Ar
Ions are the useful products of a plasma that are used in:
Sputter Deposition
Reactive Ion (highly directional) Etching
Ion Implantation

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Ionization:
Different gasses ionize more readily than others.
As such, some gas plasmas are harder to strike than others.
Element Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)
Hydrogen
1,312
Helium 2,372
Nitrogen 1,402
Oxygen 1,314
Fluorine 1,681
Neon
2,081
Chlorine 1,251
Argon
1,520

So a helium plasma requires nearly twice as much energy to strike as a chlorine plasma!

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Dissociation + Ionization:
For more complex molecules, a combination of dissociation and ionization can take place.
For example, CH 4 (methane) can dissociate in a plasma yielding:
CH3, CH2, CH, H, and C
All of which are free radicals, except for carbon.
OR, methane can ionize in a plasma yielding:
CH4+, CH3+, CH2+, CH+, H+, H, C+, and C++
In a methane plasma, all of these products (and others) are generated simultaneously.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

 Excitation:

Introduction to Plasma

Following electron impact, the molecules hold together, but they absorb energy and enter an excited state called metastable
(F* for fluorine).
Valence electrons are bumped up to a higher energy level (shell).
After a few nanoseconds,
these excited electrons
relax back to the valence
band.
This is called Relaxation.
The additional energy
acquired is dumped, and
a photon of light is emitted.
This is what gives a
plasma its glow.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Glow Discharge Color:
Different gasses, when excited, will glow with different colors.
Nitrogen glows purple, Helium glows blue, Sodium glows yellow,
Boron glows green, Neon glows red. (neon lamps!)
The color of the glow (the wavelength) is related to the energy lost
during relaxation by:
E = hc /
E is the photon energy in Joules
h is Planck's constant (6.6 x 10-34 Joule-seconds)
c is the speed of light (3 x 108 meters per second)
is the wavelength in meters
This property enables the use of spectral analysis to obtain detailed
information about the nature of the gasses that make up the plasma.
Example: Endpoint detection in a plasma etch process.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Other Reactions in a Plasma:
The three reactions discussed so far (dissociation,
ionization, and excitation) occur initially due to electron
collisions.
These are called Electron-Induced Reactions.
The products of each of these reactions can also become
colliders initiating other types of reactions:
Photon-Induced Reactions
Ion-Induced Reactions
Atomic or Molecular Reactions

Each of the above reactions will produce more ions, free

radicals, and photons.1

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Semiconductor Applications of Plasma

Etching:
Wet Etch

only features > 3

isotropic (sloped walls)
more contamination issues
greater resist lifting (undercut)
environmental impact

Dry (Plasma) Etch

submicron features
anisotropic (straight walls)
less contamination issues
less resist lifting (less undercut)
lower environmental impact
endpoint detection capability

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Semiconductor Applications of Plasma

Chemical Vapor Deposition:
Low Pressure CVD
CVD

vs. Plasma Enhanced

high temperature reaction lower temperature reactions

slower deposition rate
faster deposition rate
more hazardous gasses
less hazardous gasses
deposition on chamber walls less deposition on chamber walls

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Semiconductor Applications of Plasma

Metal Deposition:
Evaporation
vs.
point-like source
coverage)
difficult to do alloys
small/many grain structures
electromigration issues
issues
poor adhesion

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Sputtering
planar source (imp. step
easy to do alloys
large/fewer grain structures
fewer electromigration
improved adhesion

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Semiconductor Applications of Plasma

Doping:
Thermal Diffusion

vs. Ion Implantation

very high temperature

low temperature
difficult to control
very controllable
only one basic doping profilecustom (retrograde) doping
profiles

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Plasma Types: (determined by gasses used and DC bias)
Physical Chemical
Ionization => ions
Dissociation => free radicals
Directional (anisotropic) Non-Directional (isotropic)
Not selective (no chemistry)
Highly selective
DC Bias plays an important role DC Bias has no impact
PVD, Sputter Etch, Implant
CVD, Plasma Strip, Plasma Clean
Combined (Physical + Chemical)
Reactive Ion Etch
CVD Dep/Etch
Reactive Sputtering

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Plasma Ignition:
Plasmas can be generated wherever the following conditions exist:
Power: an electric field (AC or DC) of sufficient energy to
accelerate electrons to begin impact ionization.
Pressure: sufficient molecular density (pressure) to provide an
adequate number of collisions, but . . .
low enough molecular density to create a sufficient mean
free path that allows particles to accelerate before colliding.
Therefore, there is a pressure sweet spot at which point
conditions are optimal for striking a plasma.
The relationship between pressure and ignition power
(voltage) is called the Paschen Curve.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Plasma Ignition:

Sweet Spot

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Plasma Ignition:
Additional Factors that Affect Plasma Ignition:
ionization potential of the gas (some gasses are
harder to ionize than others)
AC power frequency
temperature
chamber and electrode geometries

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Plasma Ignition:
Ignition Process: (voltage vs. current curve)
Region 1 - Initial Increase: Voltage is increased to the ignition
voltage. Up to this point, there is little detectable current.
Region 2 - Negative Impedance: Once ignition occurs, electrons
avalanche (similar to a short circuit).
Voltage decreases rapidly while current continues to increase.
This sends energy back into the RF generator and RF match.
RF components must be designed to handle this energy spike.
Region 3 - Steady State: Plasma reaches steady state. Increase in
voltage yields linear increase in ion current. Plasma grows
brighter. Processing rates increase linearly.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Plasma Ignition:
Voltage and Current Characteristics:

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
DC Plasmas:
A DC (constant) voltage is
applied to two parallel plates
(or electrodes: cathode
(negative polarity) and anode
(positive polarity)
The glow discharge divides
itself into the following regions
between the cathode (-) and
the anode (+):

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
DC Plasmas Regions:
Glow Regions:
multiple ionizations/recombinations and excitations/relaxations
cause the bright glow
color of the glow is characteristic of the gas being used
note: relatively little work (i.e. etching) is accomplished in the
glow regions
Dark Spaces:
large voltage drops cause ions to travel rapidly
little recombination occurs, hence no glow
most of the work is accomplished in these areas
As the distance between the electrodes decreases, the positive column
disappears completely, followed by the negative glow.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Sheath Formation in a DC Plasmas:
If an electrically insulated object (such as a wafer) is placed within
a plasma, it will begin to build up a negative charge.
This is due to the higher velocity of electrons vs. ions (~1000x).
The negative charge will act as a repelling force to any additional
incoming electrons.
This will create a positively
charged space around the
object known as a dark space
sheath.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
Arcing in a Plasma:
An arc is NOT a glow discharge.
An arc IS a low-resistance breakdown of the dielectric space between the two
electrodes.
It occurs at high pressure and high voltage.
The electrode surface partially vaporizes, and the metal vapor becomes the
main conductor.
An arc will divert current from the glow
discharge, nullifying much of the desired
results of the plasma.
Whenever an arc is observed in a
plasma system, the system should be
shut down immediately!
Sodium vapor and mercury vapor lamps
are examples of USEFUL arc discharges.

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak

Introduction to Plasma
References:
1. Hata, David M. (2004) Introduction to Plasma
Technology: A Technicians Perspective. Portland
Community College

Fall 2004

Semitec 215

Jozwiak