Thermodynamics II Compressors

Department of Mechanical Engineering
THERMODYNAMICS- II
by
Dr. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta
University of Engineering and Technology

Lahore, Pakistan
Lahore
Pakistan
Thermodynamics- II
(ME-242)
Dr. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta
DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta
Lahore ,Pakistan
Introduction
Air compressors are more than 2000 years old; the
first was the hand blow.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Introduction
Today, reciprocating compressors, pumps, and
engines are the most prevalent form of machinery in
the world.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Types of Compressors
5
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Reciprocating Compressor
Used for air and refrigerant compression (air-conditioning,

cooling Systems)
Cylinder volume reduces while pressure increases, with

pulsating output
Many configurations available ( inline, V ) Air /Liquid Cool
Single acting when using one side of the piston, and double
acting when using both sides
Lahore ,Pakistan
Rotary Compressor
Rotors instead of pistons: continuous discharge
Benefits: low cost, compact, low weight, easy to maintain

(less number of parts)
Drawbacks: Small life, sensitive to foreign particles, costly

maintenance,
Sizes between 30 200 hp
Types
Lobe compressor
Screw compressor
Rotary vane / Slide vane
Screw compressor
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Centrifugal Compressor
Rotating impeller transfers energy to move the air
Continuous duty
Designed oil free
High volume applications

> 12,000 cfm
8
Lahore ,Pakistan
It is a modern industrial machine that compresses gas
with the reciprocating (back and forth) motion of a
piston within a cylinder. It is often called a recip.
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Introduction
Recips are also called Positive Displacement
Compressors because the piston decreases the
volume of the gas to directly increase its pressure.
On the other hand, centrifugal compressors impart

velocity to the gas that is converted to pressure.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Compressor Cycle
Processes involved:
Compression
To raise the pressure of gas to delivery pressure.
Discharge
To supply the high pressure gas.
Expansion
The gases left in the clearance volume expands to
atmospheric pressure.
Intake
To take the fresh gas for increasing pressure
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Compressor Cycle/P-V Diagram

R E C E IV E R P R E S S U R E
Delivery pressure P 2
IN L E T P R E S S U R E
Atmospheric pressure P 1
VC
TDC
STRO K E
VS
BDC
D IS C H A R G E
IN L E T
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Compression Process
P2
P1
STRO K E
TDC
V1
BDC
D IS C H A R G E
IN L E T
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Discharge Process
P2
P1
3
STR O K E
D IS C H A R G E
IN L E T
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Expansion Process
P2
P1
3
STRO K E
D IS C H A R G E
IN L E T
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Intake Process
P2
P1
2
STR O K E
D IS C H A R G E
IN L E T
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Reciprocating
Compressors
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Lahore ,Pakistan
Use of Recips
Recips are used in:
Onshore/offshore gas extraction from the gas
fields
Gas transmission through pipelines
Chemical processing
Drying, mixing, Crude material refining
Mechanical Processing
Tyres, Cutting, Surface preparation, cleaning, Air
pressure tools/ Impacters, Brake systems, air pressure
bearing, air motors
Power generation
To run turbines/engines
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Comparison of Compressors
Efficiency at full, partial and no load
Noise level
Size
Oil carry-over
Vibration
Maintenance
Capacity
Pressure
Duty cycle
20
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Main Components in Compressed Air Systems

Intake air filters( wet ,dry) cyclone paper filter,
Intake Air Filters that prevent dust from entering a compressor. Dust
causes sticking valves, scratched cylinders, excessive wear etc
Inter-stage coolers
Inter-stage Coolers that reduce the temperature of the air before it
enters the next stage to reduce the work of compression and
increase efficiency. They are normally water-cooled in large
compressors.
After coolers
After-Coolers with the objective to remove the moisture in the air by
reducing the temperature in a water-cooled heat exchanger
21
Lahore ,Pakistan
Moisture drain traps

Moisture drain traps that are used for removal of
moisture in the compressed air.
Receivers
provided as storage and smoothening pulsating
air output - reducing pressure variations from
the compressor
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Location
Significant influence on energy use
2. Elevation
Higher altitude = lower volumetric
efficiency
23
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3. Air Intake
Keep intake air free from
contaminants, dust or moist
Keep intake air temperature low
Every 4 oC rise in inlet air temperature =
1%
higher energy consumption
24
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4. Pressure Drops in Air Filter
Install filter in cold location or draw
air from cold location
Keep pressure drop across intake air
filter to a minimum
25
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5. Use Inter and After Coolers
Inlet air temperature rises at each
stage of multi-stage machine
Inter coolers: heat exchangers that
remove heat between stages
After coolers: reduce air temperature
after final stage
Use water at lower temperature:
reduce power
26
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6. Pressure Settings
Higher pressure
More power required for compressors
Operating above recommended
pressures(rated operating pressure)
Waste of energy
Excessive wear
27
Lahore ,Pakistan

Reducing delivery pressure
less energy and reduced leakage
rate
Segregating high/low pressure requirements

Pressure reducing valves no longer needed
28
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d. Design for minimum pressure drop in the
distribution line
Pressure drop: reduction in air pressure from the

compressor discharge to the point of use
Pressure drop < 10%
Pressure drops caused by

corrosion
inadequate sized piping, couplings hoses
choked line filter elements
29
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d. Design for minimum pressure drop in the
distribution line
Typical pressure drop in compressed air line for different pipe size
30
Lahore ,Pakistan

7. Minimizing Leakage
Consequences
Energy waste: 20 30% of output
Drop in system pressure
Shorter equipment life
Common leakage areas
Couplings, hoses, tubes, fittings

Pressure regulators
Open condensate traps, shut-off valves
Pipe joints, disconnects, thread sealants
31
UNEP
2006
Lahore
,Pakistan
7. Minimizing Leakage
Use ultrasonic acoustic detector
Tighten joints and connections
Replace faulty equipment
8. Condensate Removal
Condensate formed as after-cooler reduces

discharge air temperature
Install condensate separator trap to remove

condensate
Lahore ,Pakistan
9. Controlled usage
Do not use for low-pressure applications:
Combustion air, agitation pneumatic
conveying, air circulation, Use blowers
instead.
10. Compressor controls

Automatically turns off compressor
when not needed
33
UNEP
2006
Lahore
,Pakistan
11. Maintenance Practices

Lubrication: Check regularly
Air filters: Replace regularly (before compression)
Condensate traps: Ensure drainage
Air dryers: Inspect and replace filters
(After compression)
12. Control the irresponsible use of

compressed air (unintended)
Drying of clothes or hair
Body cleaning/playing
34
Lahore ,Pakistan
Advantages of Reciprocating Compressors Over

Centrifugal Compressors
Lower capital investment

Higher pressures (up to 60,000 psi)
Variable loading without surge
Ease of installation
Design flexibility
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Without Effective Monitoring

Increased wear makes part life shorter than planned
maintenance intervals
severe damage results
Decreased wear makes part life longer than planned

maintenance intervals
Lahore ,Pakistan
Basic Design
A reciprocating compressor consists of the following major
components:
frame,
crankshaft,
crosshead,
distance piece,
pressure packing,
cylinder,
piston,
valves.
Of course, it also requires a source of power or a prime
mover.
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Basic Design
Horizontal balance-opposed compressor:
Lahore ,Pakistan
Lahore ,Pakistan
Major Components
Frame
Crankshaft
Crosshead
Distance piece
Cylinder
Piston/piston rod
Valves
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Frame
Includes all static parts:
supports
cylinders
distance pieces
crosshead guides
crankcase
bolting
foundation
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Frame
Horizontal balance-opposed: cylinders are separated
by 180 about the crankshaft
Heavy and rigid
Designed to minimize vibration
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Crankshaft
Powered by a prime mover:
motor,
turbine, or
internal combustion engine
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Crankshaft
A flywheel mounts to the crankshaft to attenuate
torsional forces.
Not generally the source of recip malfunction.
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Crosshead
Sliding element with only one degree of freedom
Converts rotational motion into translational motion.
Together with the crankshaft and connecting rod it
forms a classic slider-crank mechanism.
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Pressure Packing
Seal around the piston rod

Keeps pressure in the cylinder
Plastic or bronze
Higher pressure requires more rings of pressure
packing
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Cylinder
The housing in which the piston reciprocates to

compress gas
Valves at each end where gas enters and escapes
Protected by wear bands (usually made of Teflon)
on the piston
Lahore ,Pakistan
Lahore ,Pakistan
Lahore ,Pakistan
Piston
Reciprocates within the cylinder to compress gas.
Uses compression rings to seal the gap between its
circumference and the cylinder wall.
Is protected by rider rings (or wear rings) which
provide a riding surface within the cylinder.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Piston
Can be single-acting or double-acting (performs
work in only one or in both directions of travel).
Double-acting pistons are the most common.
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Piston Rod
Connects the piston to the crosshead
Sealed within the crank end head by pressure
packing
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Piston/Piston Rod
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Valves
Allow relatively unrestricted flow in one direction
while blocking flow in the other direction
Usually are automatic (open and close by differential
gas pressure and springs)
At least one intake and one discharge valve is
needed in each cylinder.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Lahore ,Pakistan
Configurations
Single-acting or double-acting
difference is whether piston compresses gas in
one direction or in both
Lubricated or non-lubricated
non-lubricated if gas is sensitive to oil
contamination
Lahore ,Pakistan
Configurations (cont.)
Single or multiple stage
gas is compressed in stages in multiple stage
to increase efficiency, the gas is cooled between
stages
intermediate cooling is called intercooling
Single or multiple gas streams
Lahore ,Pakistan
Configurations (cont.)
Two to ten cylinders per machine
even numbers because they are horizontal
balance-opposed to cancel vibration forces
Lahore ,Pakistan
Theoretical Compression Cycles

Adiabatic Compression
All heat generated is retained in the gas (no heat
transfer).
Isothermal Compression
Temperature of the gas is kept constant during
compression with heat removal devices.
Actual Cycle is between the two.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Intercooling
Intercooling in multistage compressors maximizes
efficiency.
1st stage is close to adiabatic
Intercoolers between the stages bring the process
closer to isothermal.
Isothermal compression requires less power.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Losses Affecting Efficiency
Spring force in valves

Sticktion (valve friction)
Valve plate inertia
Pressure drop through valve
Leaking past rings
Packing leakage
Lahore ,Pakistan
Piston Rings
Piston rings can wear out rapidly and fail if rider
bands are not maintained.
Worn piston rings, also diminish efficiency and
can cause the machine not to function correctly.
Rider Rings
Rider rings/bands are provided to prevent contact of the compressor piston with the cylinder wall. Such
contact could cause problems such as scuffing or more serious and costly problems such as piston
and/or liner replacement. Rider rings/bands are normally made of a low friction material such as a
Telfon(tm) blend but they can also be supplied in bronze and/or PEEK(tm) for harsh applications
with high temperatures
Lahore ,Pakistan
Piston Rings
Broken rings can be identified by looking at the
vibration waveform (ac component) from the
proximity probes.
Normal waveform has small amplitude and is
sinusoidal.
Damaged rings will produce a waveform with
spikes.
Lahore ,Pakistan
Transducer Mounting
Lahore ,Pakistan
Thank You
Lahore ,Pakistan

Thermodynamics II Compressors

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

University of Engineering and Technology

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Used for air and refrigerant compression (air-conditioning,

Cylinder volume reduces while pressure increases, with

Many configurations available ( inline, V ) Air /Liquid Cool

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Rotors instead of pistons: continuous discharge

Benefits: low cost, compact, low weight, easy to maintain

Drawbacks: Small life, sensitive to foreign particles, costly

Sizes between 30 200 hp

Rotating impeller transfers energy to move the air

Designed oil free

High volume applications

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

On the other hand, centrifugal compressors impart

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Compressor Cycle/P-V Diagram

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Efficiency at full, partial and no load

Main Components in Compressed Air Systems

Moisture drain traps

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Segregating high/low pressure requirements

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Pressure drop: reduction in air pressure from the

Pressure drop < 10%

Pressure drops caused by

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Common leakage areas

Couplings, hoses, tubes, fittings

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Use ultrasonic acoustic detector

Tighten joints and connections

Replace faulty equipment

Condensate formed as after-cooler reduces

Install condensate separator trap to remove

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

10. Compressor controls

11. Maintenance Practices

12. Control the irresponsible use of

Advantages of Reciprocating Compressors Over

Lower capital investment

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

Without Effective Monitoring

Decreased wear makes part life longer than planned

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta

DR. Muhammad Mahmood Aslam Bhutta