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UNIT 3: Molecular Genetics
Chapter 5: The Structure and Function

of DNA
Chapter 6: Gene Expression
Chapter 7: Genetic Research and
Biotechnology
UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA
Chapter 5: The Structure and

Function of DNA
What are the structures and
functions of DNA and RNA?
Scientists now know that DNA,
shown here in its uncondensed
form, carries genetic information
that defines many of an
organisms traits (including
behaviours) and its predisposition
for certain diseases.
5.1 DNA Structure and

Organization in the Cell
Before DNA was established as the
genetic material in cells, scientists knew:
there was a connection between

chromosomes and inherited traits
the genetic material had to control the production of
enzymes and proteins
the genetic material had to be able to replicate itself
with accuracy and still allow mutations to occur
Section 5.1
Section 5.1
Identifying DNA as
the Material of Heredity: Griffith
Frederick Griffiths experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae
in 1928 established DNA as the material of heredity.
Two forms of the bacterium were used:
The S-strain was highly

pathogenic but could be
made non-pathogenic by
heating it.
The R-strain was nonpathogenic.
Continued
Section 5.1
Identifying DNA as
the Material of Heredity: Griffith
Griffith discovered that mice died after being injected with a
mixture of heat-killed S-strain and living R-strain bacteria.
Griffith called this phenomenon
the transforming principle
because something from the Sstrain transformed the R-strain
into deadly bacteria.
Section 5.1
Identifying DNA as the Material of

Heredity: Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty
Canadian-American microbiologist Oswald Avery and his
group built on Griffiths work to identify the molecules in
the S-strain that caused the transformation.
Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty prepared identical extracts
of the heat-killed S-strain and subjected each extract to one
of three enzymes:
one that destroyed proteins
one that destroyed RNA, and
one that destroyed DNA.
Continued
Section 5.1

Heredity: Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty
Each enzyme-treated extract was then mixed with live
R-strain cells. The only extract that did not allow
transformation of the R-strain to the pathogenic S-strain
was the one treated with the DNA-destroying enzyme.
Avery and his colleagues concluded that DNA was the
hereditary material.
Section 5.1

Heredity: Hershey and Chase
In 1952, Americans Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
ruled out protein as the hereditary material. Their
experiments used T2 bacteriophages, which consist of
nucleic material surrounded by a protein coat.
Hershey and Chase used two different radioactive isotopes
to track each molecule (35S for proteins and 32P for DNA).
Continued
Section 5.1

In their first experiment:
a virus with DNA radioactively labelled with 32P was allowed

to infect bacteria. After agitation and separation, radioactivity
was found in the bacteria pellet but not in the liquid medium.
Continued
Section 5.1

In their second experiment:
a virus with its protein coat radioactively labeled with 35S

was allowed to infect bacteria. After agitation and
separation, radioactivity was found in the liquid medium but
not in the bacteria pellet. The results proved that viral DNA
held the genetic material needed for viruses to reproduce.
Section 5.1
Determining the Chemical Composition

and Structure of DNA
DNA was discovered in 1869 by Fredrich
Miescher. By isolating the nuclei of white
blood cells, he extracted an acidic molecule
he called nuclein.
In the early 1900s, Phoebus Levene isolated two types of
nucleic acid: RNA and DNA. In 1919, he proposed that
both were made up of individual units called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide was composed of one of four nitrogencontaining bases, a sugar, and a phosphate group.
Section 5.1
The Chemical Composition of the

Nucleotides, DNA, and RNA
In later years, other scientists confirmed and extended
Levenes work. DNA and RNA are both made up of a
combination of four different nucleotides.
Nucleotides are often identified by referring to their bases:
DNA has the nucleotides adenine (A), guanine (G),

cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
RNA has the nucleotides adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and uracil (U).
Continued
Section 5.1
The Chemical Composition of the

Nucleotides, DNA, and RNA
The general structure of a DNA nucleotide includes a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar
group, and a nitrogen-containing base. Nucleotides in RNA have the same basic structure, except
a ribose sugar group is used. The sugar groups differ by a hydroxyl group at the 2 carbon. Both
DNA and RNA contain the same purine bases and the cytosine pyrimidine base. However, thymine
is only present in DNA, and uracil is only present in RNA.
Section 5.1
Chargaffs Rule: Closing in on

the Structure of DNA
Erwin Chargaff was inspired by Avery, MacLeod, and McCartys
work on DNA and launched a research program to study nucleic
acids. By the late 1940s, he had reached two conclusions:
There is variation in the composition of nucleotides in

different species.
Regardless of the species, DNA maintains certain nucleotide
proportions. That is, the amount of A and T nucleotides are
equal and the amount of C and G nucleotides are equal. This
constant relationship is known as Chargaffs rule.
Continued
Section 5.1
Chargaffs Rule: Closing in on

the Structure of DNA
In DNA, the percent composition of adenine is the same
as thymine, and the percent composition of cytosine is the
same as guanine.
Pauling Discovers a Helical

Structure for Proteins
In 1951, Linus Pauling discovered
that many proteins have helixshaped structures. Scientists,
including James Watson and
Francis Crick, used this
information when deducing the
structure of DNA.
Section 5.1
Section 5.1
Franklin Determines a
Helical Structure for DNA
In the early 1950s, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins used X-ray diffraction
to analyze DNA samples. Franklin captured high-resolution photographs and,
using mathematical theory to interpret them, determined the following:
DNA has a helical structure.

The nitrogen bases are on the inside of the DNA helix, and the
sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside.
(A) Rosalind Franklin was a British chemist who was

hired to work alongside Maurice Wilkins at the X-ray
diffraction facilities at Kings College.
(B) In the diffraction image of DNA that she produced,
the central x-shaped pattern enabled researchers to
infer that DNA has a helical structure.
Section 5.1
Watson and Crick Build a ThreeDimensional Model for DNA

In the early 1950s, Watson and Crick began working on a
description of the structure of DNA using the results and
conclusions of their peers.
In 1953, they published a paper that proposed a structure with the
following features:
a twisted ladder, which they called a double-helix. The sugarphosphate molecules make up the sides or handrails of the
ladder, and the bases make up the rungs of the ladder by
protruding inwards.
Continued
Section 5.1
Watson and Crick Build a ThreeDimensional Model for DNA
The distance between the sugar-phosphate backbones

remains constant over the length of a molecule of DNA.
An A nucleotide on one strand always sits across from a T
nucleotide (and C across from G) in order to maintain
constant distance. These are called
base pairs.
Different sequences of base

pairs can exist, which
accounts for the differences
between species.
Section 5.1
The Modern DNA Model:

The DNA Double Helix
Structural features of DNA:
The double helix is composed of two

polynucleotide strands that twist
around one another. Each strand has a
backbone of alternating phosphate
groups and sugars.
The distance between the sugarphosphate backbones in each strand is
constant.
The bases of each nucleotide are
attached to each sugar and face
inward.
Continued
Section 5.1
The Modern DNA Model:

The two strands are complementary due to

complementary base pairing of A with T and C with
G. Hydrogen bonds link each complementary base
pair.
Each strand has a 5 end and a 3 end. The 5 and 3
come from the numbering of the carbons in the
deoxyribose sugar.
The two strands are antiparallel, where the 5 end
from one strand is across from the 3 end of the
complementary strand.
The sequence of a DNA strand is written in the 5 to 3
direction.
Section 5.1
Section 5.1
The Structure and Organization

of Genetic Material
To relate DNAs primary structure (how nucleotides are linked) and secondary structure (how two
strands of nucleotides form a double helix) to DNA function, it is necessary to consider:
how DNA is organized in the cell, and

how its genome (the total genetic material of an organism)
is arranged into distinct functional regions on DNA
The functional unit of DNA is a gene, which is a specific

sequence of DNA that codes for proteins and RNA molecules.
The majority of DNA in an organisms genome does not
contain genes and, instead, has non-coding regions. These
regions may contain regulatory sequences, which are sections
of DNA that regulate the activity of genes.
Section 5.1
DNA of Prokaryotic Cells

In prokaryotes such as bacteria, the bacterial chromosome consists of a circular, double-stranded DNA molecule. More than
one copy of the bacterial chromosome may exist in a bacterial cell.
Since prokaryotes do not have a nuclear
is packed in the region of the cell called
membrane, each bacterial chromosome

the nucleoid.
The DNA of prokaryotic cells such as E. coli is

packed near the centre of the cell in the nucleoid,
which is not segregated by membranes from the
rest of the interior of the cell.
Continued
Section 5.1

Prokaryotic DNA must be tightly packed so that it can fit
in the nucleoid. DNA packing is achieved through coiling,
compacting, and supercoiling.
(A) The circular chromosomal DNA molecule can

be compacted through (B) the formation of
looped structures.
(C) The looped DNA can be further compacted
by DNA supercoiling. Note: the coloured balls
represent proteins involved in supercoiling.
Continued
Section 5.1

DNA supercoiling is the formation of additional coils in the
structure of DNA due to twisting forces. It is controlled by the
enzymes topoisomerase I and topoisomerase II. Antibacterial
drugs have been developed to specifically block these enzymes
and inhibit bacterial survival.
Some prokaryotes also have plasmids, which are small, circular
or linear DNA molecules that often carry non-essential genes.
Plasmids are not part of the nucleoid. They can be copied and
transmitted between cells or incorporated into the chromosomal
DNA and reproduced during cell division.
Continued
Section 5.1

Most prokaryotes are haploid, meaning they only have one set
of chromosomes and therefore carry only one copy of each
gene. Their genomes carry very little non-essential DNA.
The majority of prokaryotic genomes
are composed of regions that contain
either genes or regulatory sequences.
Regulatory sequences are sections
of DNA sequences that determine
when certain genes and associated
cell functions are activated.
This is a partial map of the E. coli genome. There are
actually thousands of genes in the genome, very few
of which are non-essential.
Section 5.1
DNA of Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic DNA is a double-stranded, linear molecule that is tightly compacted in the nucleus of eukaryotic
cells. The total amount of DNA in eukaryotic cells is much greater than in prokaryotic cells. Therefore,
eukaryotic DNA undergoes greater compacting than prokaryotic DNA.
The compacting of DNA in eukaryotic cells is achieved through

different levels of organization.
Continued
Section 5.1
DNA Organization in Eukaryotic Cells

Histones: a family of proteins that associates with DNA
Nucleosome: the condensed structure formed when double-stranded DNA
wraps around an octamer of histone proteins
NOTE: Organization as a distinct chromosome (shown in D) occurs during
cell division. Otherwise, the DNA is less condensed and is called
chromatin.
Section 5.1
Variation in the Eukaryotic Genome

The size and number of genes in the eukaryotic genome vary
a great deal. There is no correlation between an organisms
complexity and genome size.
There is also variation in the molecules that genes produce.
Genes can code for RNA molecules, in addition to proteins.
(A) Lungfish have 40 times more DNA per cell than a human cell.
(B) Rice has 30 000 more protein-coding genes than a human.
(C) C. elegans has the same number of genes as humans but less DNA.
Section 5.1 Review
Section 5.1
Section 5.2
5.2 DNA Replication

All life depends on the ability of cells to reproduce. Successful reproduction includes the transfer
of the parents DNA to offspring.
The life cycle of a cell is referred to as the cell cycle. For most cells, the cell cycle can be
represented as in the diagram shown here. The process of copying one DNA
molecule into two identical molecules is
called DNA replication.
DNA is copied during

S phase of interphase
in the cell cycle.
DNA Replication
In the mid-1950s, three competing
models of DNA replication were
proposed:
conservative model
semi-conservative model
dispersive model
The conservative model results in one new

molecule and conserves the old. The semiconservative replication model results in two
hybrid molecules of old and new strands. The
dispersive model results in hybrid molecules with
each strand being a mixture of old and new
strands.
Section 5.2
Section 5.2
Meselson and Stahl Determine the

Mechanism of DNA Replication
Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl reasoned that they could test the
models if they could distinguish between parent and daughter strands of
DNA. They used two different isotopes of nitrogen to label the DNA:
light 14N and heavy 15N. These isotopes were chosen for two reasons:
Nitrogen is a component of DNA and would be

incorporated into newly synthesized daughter strands.
Light and heavy forms of nitrogen would allow
separation of different strands of DNA based on how much
isotope was present. DNA with the heavy nitrogen would
be more dense than DNA with light nitrogen.
Continued
Meselson and Stahl Determine the

Mechanism of DNA Replication
Section 5.2
Section 5.2
DNA Replication Phase 1: Initiation

Semi-conservative replication has three
phases: initiation, elongation, and
termination.
In initiation, a portion of the DNA is

unwound to expose the bases for base
pairing. Unwinding starts at a specific
nucleotide sequence called the origin of
replication. Circular prokaryotic DNA
has a single origin of replication while
linear eukaryotic DNA often has
thousands.
Continued
Section 5.2
Initiation
Initiator proteins bind to the DNA and begin the

process of unwinding.
Helicase enzymes cleave the hydrogen bonds that link
the complementary base pairs.
Single-strand-binding proteins help to stabilize the
unwound strands.
Topoisomerase II (in prokaryotes) relieves strain on the
double helix that is generated from unwinding.
A replication bubble forms with a Y-shaped replication fork

at each end.
Section 5.2
Elongation: Part I
Two new strands are assembled using the parent DNA
as a template.
DNA polymerase III catalyzes the addition of new
nucleotides to create a complementary strand to the
parent strand. However, it can only attach new
nucleotides to the free 3 hydroxyl end of a preexisting chain of nucleotides. Only one parent strand
has a free 3 hydroxyl end.
The strand that is synthesized continuously in the 5 to
3 direction from this parent strand is called the
leading strand.
Continued
Elongation: Part I
Section 5.2
Section 5.2
Elongation: Part II
The lagging strand is formed in short segments away
from the replication fork in a discontinuous manner.
This requires primase to synthesize an RNA primer.
Once the primer is attached to the parental strand, DNA
polymerase III extends the strand by synthesizing DNA
fragments called Okazaki fragments.
DNA polymerase I removes the primers and fills in the
space by extending the neighbouring DNA fragment.
DNA ligase then joins the Okazaki fragments to create a
complete strand.
Section 5.2
Termination
Termination occurs once the synthesis of the new DNA
strands is complete.
The two new DNA molecules separate from each other,
and the replication machine is dismantled.
At each replication fork

lies a complex of proteins
and DNA that make up
the replication machinery.
The image shown here is
a simplified version of the
molecules involved.
Important Enzymes in
DNA Replication
Section 5.2
Section 5.2
Errors During DNA Replication

A human cell can copy its entire DNA in a few hours, with
an error rate of about one per 1 billion nucleotide pairs.
Errors naturally occur
during replication.
Mispairing of bases
and strand slippage are
two types of errors that
cause either additions
or omissions of
nucleotides.
Incorrect pairing (mispairing) of
bases is thought to occur as a
result of flexibility in DNA structure.
Continued
Errors During
DNA Replication
Strand slippage during

DNA replication can cause
the addition or omission of
nucleotides in newly
synthesized strands,
which represent errors.
Section 5.2
Section 5.2
Correcting Errors During DNA Replication

DNA polymerase I and II have proofreading abilities.
These enzymes recognize and correct errors in newly
synthesized strands of DNA. This method repairs about
99% of the mismatch errors that occur during replication.
Mismatch repair is done by a group of proteins that can
recognize and repair deformities in newly synthesized
DNA that feature the mispairing of bases.
Errors that remain after DNA polymerase proofreading or
mismatch repair are considered mutations once cell
division occurs.
Comparing DNA Replication in

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
Section 5.2
Section 5.2 Review
Section 5.2
UNIT 3 Biology Connections
Biobanking is the collection and

analysis of physical specimens from
which DNA can be derived from a
wide sampling of individuals.
A goal of biobanking is to provide
researchers with open access to
millions of high-quality tissue
samples collected from people around
the world.
While biobanks offer the potential for
gaining insight into the interaction
between genes, environmental
factors, and disease, they also present
difficult legal and ethical challenges.
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UNIT 3: Molecular Genetics

Chapter 5: The Structure and Function

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Chapter 5: The Structure and

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

5.1 DNA Structure and

there was a connection between

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

The S-strain was highly

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Identifying DNA as the Material of

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Identifying DNA as the Material of

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Identifying DNA as the Material of

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Identifying DNA as the Material of

a virus with DNA radioactively labelled with 32P was allowed

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Identifying DNA as the Material of

a virus with its protein coat radioactively labeled with 35S

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Determining the Chemical Composition

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

The Chemical Composition of the

DNA has the nucleotides adenine (A), guanine (G),

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

The Chemical Composition of the

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Chargaffs Rule: Closing in on

There is variation in the composition of nucleotides in

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Chargaffs Rule: Closing in on

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Pauling Discovers a Helical

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

DNA has a helical structure.

(A) Rosalind Franklin was a British chemist who was

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Watson and Crick Build a ThreeDimensional Model for DNA

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

Watson and Crick Build a ThreeDimensional Model for DNA

The distance between the sugar-phosphate backbones

Different sequences of base

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

The Modern DNA Model:

The double helix is composed of two

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

The Modern DNA Model:

The two strands are complementary due to

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

The DNA Double Helix

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

The Structure and Organization

how DNA is organized in the cell, and

The functional unit of DNA is a gene, which is a specific

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

DNA of Prokaryotic Cells

membrane, each bacterial chromosome

The DNA of prokaryotic cells such as E. coli is

UNIT 3 Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of DNA

DNA of Prokaryotic Cells