The Solar System

Observing the Solar System

 Ancient Observations
• The ancient Greeks
observed the sky and
noticed that the moon,
sun, and stars seemed to
move in a circle around
the Earth.
• It seemed that the Earth
was not moving and
everything in the heavens
revolved around the
Earth.
• As it turned out, it was
very difficult to prove that
the planets did not
revolve around the Earth
without leaving the
planet.
Wandering Stars
• The Greeks also noticed that while the stars move
across the sky, their patterns do not change.
• But five points of light did move among the stars.
• The Greeks called these objects planets, which means
“wandering star.”
• They made careful observations of these planets, which
we call Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
Geocentric Theory
• Ancient Greeks such
as Aristotle believed
that the universe was
perfect and finite, with
the Earth at the exact
center.
• This is the geocentric
theory, which has the
planets, moon, sun,
and stars revolve
around the Earth.
Ptolemy
• In 140 CE the Greek
astronomer Ptolemy (85-
165CE) revised the
geocentric model to
explain all the planetary
motions.
• This was necessary as at
times the planets seem to
move backwards in the
sky.
• His model had the
planets move in little
circles that also moved in
bigger circles.
• This belief persisted for
about 1400 years.
Copernicus (1473-1543)
• In the early 1500’s the polish
astronomer Copernicus
developed the heliocentric
model.
• Helios means “sun” in Greek.
• He placed the sun at the
center of the solar system and
had the planets revolve around
the sun.
• This was a very simple and
elegant theory that explained
all the planetary motions
without the complexities of the
Ptolemaic theory.
• Scientists prefer simple
explanations over complex
ones.
• Occam's Razor:
– The simplest explanation is
usually the best.
Retrograde Motion
• The apparent
temporary backward
motion of a planet.
• This is caused when
a faster moving inner
planet, say the Earth,
bypasses a slower
moving out planet,
say Mars.
Planetary Phases
• Only planets that are
always closer to the
sun will show phases
when viewed from the
Earth.
• Planets orbiting
further from the sun
than the Earth will
always appear full.
Ptolemaic Discrepancies
• Retrograde motion: At
times the planets would
stop their movement in
the sky, turn backwards
for a few days, and then
resume their forward
progress.
• Jupiter's Moons: Galileo
first saw evidence that
objects revolved around
something besides the
Earth.
• Galileo also saw that
Mercury and Venus went
through phases, just like
our moon, but the outer
planets did not.
Heliocentric Theory Prevails
• Since Galileo’s theory
clashed with the
religious views of the
time, he underwent
many trials and
tribulations,
eventually being
sentenced to house
arrest for his
remaining years.
• But his view has
withstood the test of
time.
• Today we talk about
our solar system, not
our Earth system
Tycho Brahe
• (1546-1601CE) A Danish
astronomer who was not
happy with the accuracy
of the astronomical
observations of his and
earlier times.
• Created his own
instruments and made
very detailed
observations of the
heavens for over 20
years.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
• German
mathematician who
used Brahe’s data to
compute the actual
orbit of the planets.
• He discovered that
the planets do not
orbit in circles, but in
ellipses.
Kepler’s Laws
• Kepler’s three laws
enabled astronomer’s
to figure out the orbits
of the planets.
• But while he could
now predict where a
planet would be on a
given day, he had no
idea what made them
move in almost
circular paths.
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
• One of the greatest
scientists in history.
• Studied light and optics,
astronomy, motion,
thermodynamics, and
many other things.
• When he couldn’t find
mathematics powerful
enough to solve his
gravity and planetary orbit
problems, he created his
mathematics, which we
call calculus today.
• Famous for his three laws
of motion and the Law of
Universal Gravitation.
• Newtonian physics is
used today to send the
shuttle into orbit, space
probes to the stars, and
the Apollo astronauts to
the moon.
• Was the first to show how
objects could be put into
orbit around our planet.
• “If I have seen further
than others, it is by
standing upon the
shoulders of giants.”
Inertia
• Inertia is the property
of matter to resist any
change in motion.
• An object at rest will
remain at rest, while
an object in motion
will remain in motion
in a straight line at a
constant speed until
acted on by an
outside force.
Gravity
• Gravity is the force of
attraction between
any two objects with
mass.
• The more mass, the
more gravity.
• The further apart the
two objects are, the
less gravity.
Newton’s Law of Gravity
• Newton realized that the
moon should go in a
straight line forever and
ever.
• But the force of gravity
kept pulling it towards the
Earth.
• The moon is going fast
enough that it keeps
curving around the Earth.
• It is constantly falling
towards the Earth.
Newton and Kepler
• Newton’s combined
Kepler’s Third Law with
his Law of Gravity.
• Now he could figure out
the masses of the other
planets if he knew how
far they were from the
sun and the time it takes
them to make one orbit.
Solar System
• There are nine planets in our solar system.
• Mercury is 58,000,000-km from the sun.
• Pluto is 5,913,000,000-km from the sun.
• These numbers are hard to use!
Astronomical Units
• We will use AU’s to
measure distances in
the solar system.
• The Earth is about
150,000,000-km
(93,000,000 miles) on
average from the sun.
• So we will call this
distance 1 AU.
Planetary Distances
• Mercury 0.4 AU • Light travels through
• Venus 0.7 AU space at 300,000-km/s.
• Earth 1.0 AU • So it takes about 8
• Mars 1.5 AU minutes for light from the
sun to travel 1 AU and
• Jupiter 5.0 AU reach us.
• Saturn 10.0 AU • How long would it take
• Uranus 19.0 AU light from the sun to
• Neptune 30.0 AU reach Pluto?
• Pluto 39.0 AU • 39 x 8 = 312 minutes, or
5.2 hours!
The Sun
Mass of the Solar System
• Almost all the mass in
our solar system is in
the sun.
• Mass of the Solar
System
• Sun 99.80%
• Jupiter 0.10%
• Comets 0.05%
• Other 8 planets 0.04%
– Total of Sun + Planets +
Comets = 99.99%
Solar Facts
• Is just a medium sized star (yellow dwarf). It is about 1.4
million kilometers in diameter
• It would take 10 Jupiter’s or 109 Earths to fit across the
Sun!
• Makes life on our planet possible by giving us great
amounts of light and heat.
Composition
• The sun is mainly
composed of hydrogen
and helium.
• 90 % hydrogen
• 9 % helium
• Small amounts of the
elements up through iron.
• This changes over time
as the sun converts
hydrogen to helium by
fusion.
Fusion
• The process of
combining the nuclei
of small atoms into
one larger atom.
• This process gives off
enormous amounts of
energy.
• Mass is actually
converted into energy
(E=mc2).
Fusion in the Sun
• It takes enormous heat
and pressure to fuse
even the lightest
elements.
• Our sun can fuse
elements up to atomic
number 8.
• It would take larger stars
to create elements larger
than oxygen.
• Our sun has enough
hydrogen to fuse for
another 5 billion years.
The Sun’s Layers
1. Core: This is the center layer
of the sun. This is where all
the sun's heat and light is
made. 15 million °C.

2. Radiative Zone: The heat and

light move from the core into
this layer.

3. Convection Zone: In this layer,

the gases move like boiling
water. This moves them from
the inner parts of the Sun to
the outer part of the sun that
we see. About 6400 °C.
Sun’s Outer Layers
4. Photosphere: This is the part of
the sun we see. This layer
gives off the heat and light
from the sun. The cooler parts
of this layer make sunspots.

5. Chromosphere: This layer

shoots out hot gases.

6. Corona: This layer can only be

seen during an eclipse. It is the
atmosphere around the sun.

These layers are called the

Sun’s atmosphere.
Exploring the Sun
Sunspots
• Sunspots look like small, dark areas on the sun’s
surface.
• They are areas of gas that are cooler than the
surrounding gases. They don’t give off as much light, so
they look darker.
• Created by the Sun’s magnetic field.
Sunspot Activity
• The numbers of sunspots changes regularly, reaching a maximum
number every 11.2 years.
• This coincides with the Sun’s magnetic field reversing every 11.2
years.
• Could be responsible for short term climate changes.
Solar Flares
• Enormous explosions on
the surface of the Sun.
• Occur near sunspots when
the loops in suddenly
connect.
• Release particles and
radiation that can reach the
Earth.
• Can interfere with
communications and
damage satellites.
Prominences
• Sunspots usually occur in pairs.
• Prominences are reddish loops of gases that
follow the magnetic lines.
Little Ice Age
• During the late 1600’s
almost all solar
sunspot activity
stopped. For 60
years there was
almost no sunspot
activity.
• Scientists do not
know why this
happened.
• The weather in
Europe and North
America was much
colder than usual.
The Inner Planets
Planetary Zones
• First Zone: Contains
the rocky terrestrial
planets Mercury to
Mars.
• Asteroid belt divides
the first and second
zones.
• Second Zone:
Contains the gas
giants Jupiter through
Neptune.
• Third Zone: Goes
from the orbit of
Neptune out to 50 AU.
Includes Pluto and the
“ice dwarfs” in the
Kuiper Belt.
The Inner Planets
• Planets are rocky.
• Called terrestrial from
the Latin word terra,
which means Earth.
Mercury
• Roman name for the
Greek messenger
god. He wore winged
sandals so he could
fly. Since Mercury
the planet is the
fastest of all the
planets this is
appropriate.
Mercury Data
• Closest to the sun.
• Temperature ranges from
427°C in daylight to
-173°C at night.
• Revolves slowly, in two
Mercury years three
Mercury days will have
passed.
• Essentially no
atmosphere.
• Surface similar to the
moon, with craters and
smooth plains.
• One third the size of the
Earth.
Mercury
• Diameter: one third the size of Earth
• Distance: 0.4 AU
• Atmosphere: no atmosphere
• Features: Craters with smooth plains and
most extreme temperature range
• Life:no life because of atmosphere
Venus
• Named for the Roman
goddess of love and
beauty. Originally the
Greek goddess
Aphrodite.
Venus Temperature
• Almost same size
as the Earth.
• Hottest surface in
our solar system.
The average
daytime surface
temperature is
464°C, compared
to the Earth’s 15°C.
• This is hot enough
to melt lead.
Venus Atmosphere
• Seen from Earth, Venus is
completely cloud covered.
• Venus has an very thick
atmosphere, about 96% CO2,
and 4 % N2.
• The clouds are mainly sulfuric
acid.
• The atmospheric pressure is
92 atmosphere’s, compared to
the one atmosphere we
experience on Earth.
• This is the pressure you would
feel if you were under 915
meters of water!
Greenhouse Effect
• Venus is the classic
example of the “runaway
greenhouse effect.”
• Water on Earth helped tie
up much of the CO2 in
rocks. Life also stored CO2
in plants and shells of
animals.
• Venus was probably too
warm to have much water
in the liquid state, so the
water vapor added to the
greenhouse effect.
• As the rocks got hotter,
they released their CO2 into
the air also.
• So the greenhouse effect
got worse and worse.
Venus Motions
• Since Venus takes 7.5
Earth months to revolve
around the sun and 8
months to rotate once on
its axis, a day on Venus
is longer than its year.
• Venus also rotate east to
west, the only planet to
do so. This retrograde
rotation (backward) was
probably caused by
Venus being struck by a
large object early in its
history.
Venus Surface
• Since we can’t see through the clouds on Venus, we use
radar to scan the surface.
• Venus has rocks, mountains, craters, and strange dome
shape landforms not found on other planets.
Venus Explorations
• About 20 spacecraft have visited Venus, with
more either on the way or planned.
• Some have even landed on the surface and sent
back pictures for a short while.
The Evening Star
• When in the west at
sunset, Venus will be the
brightest object in the
sky.
• This is because Venus
has the highest albedo
(0.76) of all the planets.
Albedo is the percent of
light reflected by an
object.
• Our moon has an albedo
of 0.07, so it reflects very
little of the light that
strikes it.
• Also called the morning
star when it is in the east.
Venus
• Diameter: 0.9 Earth
• Distance: 0.7 AU
• Atmosphere: 96% carbon dioxide at 0.01
atmospheres.
• Features: hottest surface in solar system.
Retrograde rotation.
• Life: Very doubtful, the pressure and
temperatures are too high. Sulfuric acid in
atmosphere does not help either.
Earth
• Diameter: 1 earth
• Distance: 1 AU
• Atmosphere: 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen
• Features: water world, moderate
temperature and pressures
• Life: teeming with life. Planet is “just right”
for life as we know it.
Mars
• Mars is the Latin
name for Ares, the
Greek god of war.
Mars Atmosphere
• Mars has an atmosphere
that is mainly carbon
dioxide.
• It is very thin, only 0.01
atmosphere’s at the
surface.
• Mars even has clouds,
but they are thin also.
• The winds can create
dust storms that cover
much of the planet and
last for months.
Mars Volcanoes
• Mars surface has a wide
variety of landscapes.
• Olympus Mons is the
largest volcano in our
solar system. Its base
would cover the state of
Colorado.
• It is three times taller than
Mt. Everest.
• There are many other
volcanoes on Mars, but
none seem to be active at
this time.
Mars Canyons
• Valles Marineris is an
enormous canyon on
the equator of Mars.
It is over 4000-km
long. This would
reach from Los
Angles to Chicago!
Mars Landscape
• Mars seems to have dried
river and lake beds,
deltas, and other features
that make scientists think
Mars had abundant water
early in its history.
• If there was water it is
possible that life could
have existed on Mars,
and still might.
Mars Data
• Mars is about half the
size of the Earth.
• A 100 pound sixth grader
would weigh 39 pounds
on Mars.
• It is very cold on Mars,
with the average
temperature ranging from
-140° C to 20° C.
• Mars has two very small
moons, Phobos and
Diemos.
• They are named after the
horses that pulled Mars’s
chariot.
• The larger Deimos is only
23-km in diameter.
Mars Missions
• There have been many
missions to Mars, starting
with the Viking craft in
1976.
• There are currently two
orbiters and two rovers
collecting data on Mars.
• Manned missions are
also currently being
planned, around 2025 or
so.
Mars
• Diameter: 0.5 Earth
• Distance: 1.5 AU
• Atmosphere: 96% carbon dioxide at 0.01
atmospheres.
• Features: large canyons, volcanoes.
• Ancient dried up lakes, streams, rivers, and seas.
• Life: Possibly ancient life when there was liquid
water on the planet. Could still exist under the
sand.
The Outer Planets
Gas Giants
• Separated from the 1st
zone by the asteroid belt,
the 2nd Zone contains the
gas giants.
• Made of the lightweight
elements Hydrogen,
Helium, Carbon, Oxygen,
and Nitrogen.
• All are much larger than
the Earth, with 15-300
times the mass, and 4-11
times the diameter.
• Not believed to have solid
surfaces.
• Have rings and many
satellites.
Gas Giants Atmospheres
• Since they have so much
mass, their strong gravity can
keep even light gases from
escaping.
• Atmosphere tends to resemble
the sun (75% H, 24% He, 1%
other gases).
• No well defined surface.
Gases just get denser and
denser as you go deeper.
Becomes liquid metallic
hydrogen, which has
properties of liquids and
metals. Exist only under high
pressure. Causes Jupiter's
magnetic field.
Gas Giants Cores
• Gas giants are
believed to have
solid cores made
of rock,, ice,
frozen carbon
dioxide, and other
compounds.
• Cores would be
several times the
size of the Earth.
Jupiter, King of the Roman Gods
• Named for Jove, the
King of the Roman
Gods.
• Roman name for the
Greek god Zeus.
• Often the term Jovian
is used to describe
things pertaining to
Jupiter. Example: the
Jovian moons.
Jupiter
• Believed to be a failed star,
lacking the mass to become
a small star.
• Most massive planet in solar
system.
• Has over 60 satellites.
• Density is 1.33g/cm3.
• Rotates every 10 hours.
• Takes 12 years to orbit the
sun.
• Gravity almost 2.5 times that
of the Earth.
Jupiter
• Diameter: 11 earth's
• Distance: 5 Au
• Atmosphere: mainly hydrogen with a some
helium
• Features: active weather with storms that
last for 100s of years
• Life:none
Jupiter Atmosphere
• Mainly hydrogen with
some helium.
• Very active weather
systems.
• Forms colorful bands
and swirls.
• Has hurricanes that
last for 100’s of years.
Great Red Spot
• The red spot is a huge
storm that has been
continuously going on
Jupiter for over 400
years. Winds inside this
storm reach speeds of
about 270 mph. With a
diameter of 15,400 miles,
this storm is almost twice
the size of the entire
Earth.
Jupiter's Moons
• Galileo discovered the
four largest. Io,
Ganymede, and Callisto
are larger than our own
moon.
• Europa has a icy crust
and is believed to have
liquid water oceans below
the frozen surface.
• Io has many active
volcanoes.
Missions to Jupiter
• http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/jupiter/space

• http://www.solarviews.com/eng/craft2.htm#jupiter
Shoemaker Levy 9
• In July 1994, Comet
Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided
with Jupiter with spectacular
results (left). The effects were
clearly visible even with
amateur telescopes. The
debris from the collision was
visible for nearly a year
afterward with HST.
• Captured by Jupiter's strong
gravity, the comet was torn
into over 20 fragments that
struck Jupiter, each with a
force of millions of megatons
of energy.
• This has renewed NASA’s
interest in tracking objects that
might get close to Earth one
day.
Saturn the God
• Saturn was the Roman
God of the Harvest and of
Time.
• Father of Jupiter, Neptune,
and Pluto.
• The Roman name for the
Greek god Cronos.
• Saturnalia was the mid-
winter festival in Saturns
honor. It lasted seven days,
and there was much
merrymaking. Public
business was suspended
and schools were closed.
Parents gave presents to
their children.
Saturn Facts
• 2nd largest planet in solar
system.
• A “day” on Saturn is a
little over 10 hours long!
• It takes 29 years to orbit
the sun.
• Almost 10 times larger
than Earth.
• Most visible rings of any
planet.
• Density is 0.69 g/cm3.
• If a large enough ocean
could be found, Saturn
would float in it!
Saturn Atmosphere
• Similar to Jupiter’s,
mostly hydrogen with
some helium.
• Storms not as large or
as long lived as
Jupiter's.
• Clouds are thicker,
blocking views to
lower layers.
Explains the lack of
banding compared to
Jupiter.
Saturn’s Rings
• Very spectacular. Not at
all solid.
• Made of tiny bits of ice,
dust, and rock. A few are
up to a kilometer across.
• Only about a kilometer
thick.
• The Cassini space probe
actually passed through
the outer ring as it slowed
down to enter orbit.
Saturn’s Moons
• Has over 40 moons, 15 or so that are large
enough to be called major moons.
Titan
• Titan has an
atmosphere made of
about 99% nitrogen
and 1% methane.
• Has a pressure of
1.6 atmospheres.
• Completely covered
by thick clouds that
are similar to smog
on Earth.
• The second largest
moon, it is larger
than Pluto and
Mercury.
Cassini-Huygens
• The Huygens probe
actually parachuted
into the atmosphere
of Titan on 14
January 2005.
• It took pictures and
collected data all the
way to the surface. It
survived the landing
and sent back
pictures of the surface
it landed on.
 Saturn
• Diameter: 9 times larger than Earth
• Distance: 10 Au
• Atmosphere: 96% Hydrogen 4% Helium
• Features: Has short storms, rings orbit it
that are made up of bits of ice, dust, and
rock
• Life:no life
Uranus the God
• URANUS: Great
primeval God of the
Sky. Born of GAIA,
the Earth, he covered
the world in the form
of a vast bronze
dome and ruled over
everything.
Uranus Facts
• Diameter is like 4
Earth’s.
• Mass is 14.5 Earth’s.
• Takes 84 years to
revolve around the
sun.
• Day is a little over 17
hours long.
• Has more than 20
moons.
Uranus Axis
• Uranus is considered
unusual because the
planet is tipped on its
side. The poles actually
point towards the Sun.
This is due to the fact that
its magnetic field is tilted
60 degrees from the axis
of rotation.
• It is believed that Uranus
was struck by a large
object that knocked
Uranus on its side.
Uranus Seasons
Uranus Atmosphere
• First, there is
absolutely no detail in
the cloud cover. Only
when pushed to the
maximum level of
color enhancement
and contrast on
computers do
scientists start to see
small swirls in the
atmosphere.
Uranus Moons
• 5 large and many small
moons.
• Titania is the biggest
moon of Uranus. It is
about half the size of
our moon. Titania is
covered by many small
craters, a few huge
impact basins ice cliffs,
and fault lines.
• Ariel: The brightest
moon of Uranus.
Youngest surface of
Uranus' moons, the
least cratered. Has
long valleys and
canyons.
 Uranus
• Diameter:4 Earth’s
• Distance:19 Au
• Atmosphere:82% Hydrogen 15% Helium
• Features: extreme seasons because axis is
tipped on its side and no detail in cloud cover
• Life:no life, too cold, atmosphere and surface
would not allow life as we know it.
 Uranus
• Diameter: 3.6 times larger than Earth
• Distance: 19 Au
• Atmosphere: 82% Hydrogen 15% Helium
• Features: extreme seasons and axis is
tipped on side
• Life:no life
Neptune the God
• Neptune is the
Roman god of the
sea.
• The Romans modeled
him after the Greek
god Poseidon.
Neptune
• Neptune revolves on its
axis every 18 hours.
• It takes 165 years to
revolve around the sun
once.
• Has the mass of 17 Earths.
• Has 13 moons.
• Diameter is almost 4 times
larger than Earths.
• Blue-green color is from
the methane in the
atmosphere.
• At times it is the furthest
planet from the sun.
Neptune Atmosphere
• 80% hydrogen, 19%
helium, and 1.5%
methane.
• Has icy clouds and
enormous storms.
• Has the fastest winds
in our solar system.
 Triton
• Neptune's largest moon is
named Triton. Triton is much
larger than any of the planet's
other moons.
• Triton is a very cold place, so
the moon is covered with ice.
Even though Triton is cold
there is a lot going on there. It
has geysers like the ones at
Yellowstone Park on Earth.
• The geysers shoot ice 8 km (5
miles) high into Triton's thin
atmosphere! There may be
water under the ice at Triton. It
is even possible that there
might be life in that water. The
interior of Triton is probably
geologically active.
Neptune’s Rings
• Neptune's rings are
much darker than
Saturn's bright rings.
• Saturn's rings are
made of ice, which
reflects lots of light.
Neptune's rings are
probably made of
rocks and dust.
• Rocks and dust don't
reflect as much light.
 Neptune
• Diameter: 4 times the size of Earth
• Distance: 30 Au
• Atmosphere: 80% Hydrogen 19% Helium 1.5%
Methane
• Features: At times it is the furthest planet from the
sun. Icy clouds and enormous storms
• Life:possible life on one of its moons called Triton
Pluto the God
• Pluto was the Roman
name for Hades, the
Greek god of the
Underworld.
Pluto Facts
• Usually the furthest
planet from the sun.
• 2/3rds the size of our
moon.
• Has one moon, Charon.
• So cold that oxygen and
nitrogen in its atmosphere
is frozen solid.
• Only planet not visited by
a spacecraft.
• Pluto takes 248 years to
make one orbit around
the sun!
Pluto’s Atmosphere
• When Pluto comes close
enough to the sun, the surface
of solid Nitrogen sublimates to
produce a substantial
atmosphere with winds and
clouds.
• Because the planet is so small,
however, it does not have
enough gravity to bind an
atmosphere for very long.
Thus Pluto's atmosphere is
being rapidly produced and
rapidly lost at the same time.
• This means that the
atmosphere is not in
equilibrium.
• Pluto has the most eccentric
orbit of all the planets in the
solar system. Its orbit takes it
to 49.5 AU at its farthest point
from the Sun. And its orbit
takes it as close as 29 AU to
the Sun.
• That means that Pluto's orbit
draws within the orbit of
Neptune, as can be seen in
this drawing, making Pluto the
8th planet rather than the 9th
planet for roughly 20 years at a
time.
• Pluto was the 8th planet from
January 1979 to February
1999. Neptune is now the 8th
planet for over 200 years!
 Charon
• Named for the
boatman who ferried
the dead into the
Underworld.
• Surface seems to be
covered with water-
ice instead of Pluto’s
nitrogen-ice.
• Largest moon
compared with its
planet.
Pluto Debate
• Is Pluto really a planet?
• Pluto is small that many
scientists now consider
Pluto just another Kuiper
Belt object, which are
small icy worlds in the
third zone.
• Many have been
discovered so far, and it
is believed there are
thousands more out
there.
• In July 2005 a KBO larger
than Pluto was
discovered. Named
Sedna after the Inuit
goddess of the ocean.
Pluto
• Diameter: 0.2
• Distance: 29 Au
• Atmosphere: Oxygen and nitrogen
atmosphere
• Features: most eccentric orbit
• Life:too cold.no!
Comets, Asteroids, and
Meteors
20-5
Comets
• Comets are chunks of
ice and dust whose
orbits are very long,
narrow ellipses.
• Often thought of as
dirty snowballs.
Comet Orbits
• Most comets are on very eccentric orbits that
seldom pass near the Earth.
Comet Structure
• Nucleus: main solid core
of the comet.
• Tail: gas and dust
particles released by the
comet. They are pushed
by the soar wind away
from the sun.
• Coma: gases and dust
released by the comet
when energy from the
sun heats the comet and
causes the solid materials
to turn into a gas.
Periodic Comets
• Comets that
repeatedly orbit into
the inner solar system
are periodic comets.
• Comet Halley is a
famous, short period
comet. It appears
every 76 or so years.
• Nucleus of Halley’s
comet taken by the
Giotto spacecraft.
Halley’s Comet
• Last appeared in
1985-86. Should
appear again in 2061.
• Like most comets it
has a very eccentric
orbit.
Asteroids
• Asteroids are rocky or
metallic objects, most of
which orbit the Sun in the
asteroid belt between
Mars and Jupiter. A few
asteroids approach the
Sun more closely. None
of the asteroids have
atmospheres.
• Asteroids are also known
as planetoids or minor
planets.
 Comet Clouds
• Most comets are
from one of two
clusters, the Kuiper
Belt and the Oort
Cloud.
• The Kuipier Belt is
close to Pluto, from
30 to 50 AU from the
sun.
• The Oort Cloud is
material left over
from the formation of
the solar system and
is more than
100,000 AU from the
sun.
Asteroid Belt
• The asteroid belt is a
doughnut-shaped
concentration of asteroids
orbiting the Sun between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter,
closer to the orbit of Mars.
• Most asteroids orbit from
between 186 million to 370
million miles (300 million to
600 million km or 2 to 4 AU)
from the Sun.
• The asteroids in the asteroid
belt have a slightly elliptical
orbit. The time for one
revolution around the Sun
varies from about three to six
Earth years.
Number of Asteroids
• There are about 40,000
known asteroids that are
over 0.5 miles (1 km) in
diameter in the asteroid
belt.
• About 3,000 asteroids
have been cataloged.
There are many more
smaller asteroids.
• The first one discovered
(and the biggest) is
named Ceres; it was
discovered in 1801.
Asteroid Size
• Asteroids range in size
from tiny pebbles to about
578 miles (930
kilometers) in diameter
(Ceres).
• Sixteen of the 3,000
known asteroids are over
150 miles (240 km) in
diameter.
• Some asteroids even
have orbiting moons.
Origin of the Asteroid Belt
• The asteroid belt may be
material that never
coalesced into a planet,
perhaps because its
mass was too small.
• The total mass of all the
asteroids is only a small
fraction of that of our
Moon (about 1/30th).
• A less satisfactory
explanation of the origin
of the asteroid belt is that
it may have once been a
planet that was
fragmented by a collision
with a huge comet.
Near-Earth Asteroids
• Asteroids whose orbits
bring them within 1.3 AU
of the Sun are called
Near-Earth Asteroids
(NEA) or Earth-
Approaching asteroids.
• These asteroids probably
came from the main
asteroid belt, but were
jolted from the belt by
collisions or by
interactions with other
objects' gravitational
fields (primarily Jupiter).
NEA Concerns
• About 250 NEAs have been
found so far, but many, many
more exist.
• The largest known NEA is
1036 Ganymede, with a
diameter of 25.5 miles (41
kilometers).
• According to astronomers
there are at least 1,000 NEA's
whose diameter is greater than
0.6 miles (1 kilometer) and
which could do catastrophic
damage to the Earth.
• Even smaller NEA's could
cause substantial destruction if
they were to collide with the
Earth.
Demise of the Dinosaurs?
• An asteroid impact with the
Earth may have caused the
extinction of the dinosaurs.
• The Alvarez Asteroid Theory
explains the huge K-T mass
extinction 65 million years ago
by a large asteroid hitting the
Earth off the Mexican Yucatan
peninsula.
• This impact would have
caused severe climactic
changes leading to the demise
of many groups of organisms,
including non-avian dinosaurs.
Meteoroids
• Meteoroids are small
chunks of dust and
rock in space.
• Usually come from
comets or asteroids.
Meteors
• When a meteoroid enters
the Earth’s atmosphere
friction will cause it ti heat
up.
• It will leave a bright streak
of light across the sky as
it burns up.
• Are called meteors when
they brightly fall to the
Earth.
• Often occur in showers,
with several sightings a
minute.
Meteorites
• While the vast majority of
meteors burn completely
up, ones that are large
enough pass through the
atmosphere and hit the
surface.
• Most look like stones, so
they are not noticed.
Some are easy to identify
as they are made of iron
or nickel.
Craters
• Meteorites create craters
when they strike the
surface of a planet.
• Our moon is covered with
craters caused by
meteorites, asteroids, and
comets.
• Meteor Crater in Arizona
is a famous crater found
in the USA. Occurred
50,000 years ago.
• Hit with the force of 150
Hiroshima A bombs.
Is There Life Beyond Earth?

20-6
Extraterrestrial Life
• Life from or on other
planets.
• Life not from this Earth.
• A meteorite recently
found in Antarctica has
tiny fossilized shapes that
might be fossils, the
remains of ancient life.
And this meteorite came
from Mars!
The “Goldilocks Conditions”
• Scientists refer to “life
as we know it.”
• Most life on Earth
requires liquid water
and a suitable
temperature and
atmosphere.
• That is “it’s not too
hot, it’s not too cold,
it’s just right!”
Just Right!
• If the Earth were
much hotter, water
would always be
water vapor, a gas.
• If the Earth were
much colder, water
would always be
ice, a solid.
• But water can exist
in all three states,
because our
temperature is just
right!
Life on Earth
• Scientists are not
sure if all life would
have to be like life on
Earth.
• Life on Earth exists
even in hot springs
and near volcanic
vents.
• Maybe life can
survive outside the
Goldilocks Zone.
Life on Mars?
• Since Mars is similar to
earth it is an obvious
place to start looking.
• Spirit and Opportunity
have both found signs
that show Mars once had
a fair amount of liquid
water.
• If Mars once had water,
maybe life evolved there
also.
Life on Europa?
• While Europa’s
surface is frozen, it
appears that there
might be liquid water
below the surface.
• Heat from inside
Europa could keep
the water liquid.
• Where there is liquid
water, there might be
life.
SETI
• Search for
Extraterrestrial
Intelligence.
• Astronomers listen for
radio signals from
space.
• Intelligent races
should have radios, so
might try to contact
others.