FC1 Flash Cards 1 Nebosh

The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 came
into effect on 1st October 2006 and reforms several

pieces of legislation concerned with fire safety including
Fire Precautions Act 1971 and the Fire Precautions
(Workplace) Regulations 1997. To enable business to
comply, a number of documents where produced.
Guide 1 Offices and Shops, Guide 2 Factories and
Warehouses, Guide 3 Sleeping Accommodation, Guide
4 Residential Care Premises, Guide 5 Educational
Premises, Guide 6 Small and Medium places of
assembly, Guide 7 Large places of assembly Guide 8
-Theatres and Cinemas, Guide 9 Outdoor events,
Guide 10 Healthcare Premises, Guide 11 Transport
premises and facilities.
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 comprises of five parts:
General Application, Fire Safety Duties, Enforcement, Offences and
Appeals, Miscellaneous
Part 1 Application.
The order applies to all non domestic premises (with exceptions listed in
article 6 such as ships, offshore, aircraft), and includes advice in four parts
(in schedule 1):
The matters to be considered in risk assessment for dangerous
substances.
The matters to be taken into account in risk assessment for young
children.
Principles of prevention (hierarchy of control)
Measures to be taken in respect of dangerous substances.
A number of definitions in part 1 include:
Responsible Person, which could be considered as: The employer with
control of the workplace, person with overall management of the building,
occupier of the premises, owner of the premises.
General Fire Precautions Measures to reduce the risk and spread of fire,
means of escape that can be safely and effectively used at all times,
means of lighting fire, means for detecting fire and giving warning in case
Part 2 Fire Safety Duties

A duty is placed on the responsible person for to take
reasonable precautions to ensure SFARP the safety of the
persons they employ. This is also the case for those not in
their employment such as visitors, contractors and fire
fighters.
Risk Assessment The responsible person should carry out a
suitable and sufficient risk assessment or nominate a person
to do this on their behalf. No new work activity should start
that involves dangerous substances unless a risk assessment
has been done and any measures implemented. Risk
assessments should be reviewed if they are no longer valid,
or significant changes have occurred. If there are five or
more persons working on the premises, the risk assessment
must be recorded. No young person to be employed unless a
risk assessment has been carried out in relation to risks to
young people.
Principles of Prevention to be applied (specified in Part 3,

Schedule 1).
Avoiding the risks
Evaluating the risks that cannot be avoided
Combating the risks at source
Adapting to technical progress
Replacing the dangerous by the non or less dangerous.
Develop a coherent overall prevention policy which covers
technology, organisation of work and the influence of factors
relating to the working environment.
Giving collective measures priority over individual
measures.
Giving appropriate instructions to people.
Fire Safety Arrangements
Employers must implement arrangements for the effective
planning, organisation, control, monitoring and review
identified by the risk assessment.
Regulatory Reform (Fire

Safety) Order 2005 Part 1


Safety) Order 2005

Elimination of the risks from dangerous substances.

Reduce quantity to a minimum
Avoid or minimise the release of a dangerous substance
Control the release at source
Prevent the formation of explosive atmosphere (appropriate
ventilation etc)
Ensure any release which may at a risk is suitably contained and
collected and rendered safe.
Avoided.
Ignition sources including electrostatic discharges.
Other adverse conditions such as could result in harmful effects.
Segregate incompatible substances.
Mitigation Measures
Reduce number of persons exposed
Measures to avoid propagation of fires and explosions
Providing explosive pressure relief arrangements
Providing explosion suppression equipment
Providing plant which is constructed to withstand explosion
Providing suitable PPE.
Arrangements need to be in place for safe handling, storage and
transport and any risks are eliminated and controlled.
Maintenance
All equipment, facilities and devices are to be maintained in a good
state, working order and repair.
Emergency Routes and Exits

These should be kept clear at all times and in addition.
Routes and exits must lead as directly as possible to a place of safety
It must be possible to evacuate as quickly as possible
Numbers, dimensions and distribution must be adequate in regard to use,
maximum persons present and equipment within the premises.
Emergency doors must open in the direction of travel. Sliding or revolving doors
must not be used as specific emergency exits.
To be indicated by appropriate signage.
Where lighting is required, this must be emergency light of adequate intensity.
Part 3 Enforcement
For most premises, the enforcing authority will be the fire authority
for the area. Some exceptions to these are:
The employer has a duty to put into place procedures that will cover drills,
nominated person to aid evacuation and ensure access to danger areas is restricted
to those who are trained.
Additional measures in response of dangerous occurrences:
Information on emergency arrangements is available.
Suitable warning and communication methods are available for immediate
response and rescue.
Visible and audible warning signs are given and persons are withdrawn before any
explosive conditions are reached.
Escape facilities are provided and maintained.
Information is available to the emergency services on procedures, arrangements
and hazards.
Information to Employees
Information should be provided such as risks they may be exposed
to, preventative measures in place, procedures for emergency
arrangements and who the competent persons are.
Training
Employees should have adequate training with regards to Fire
Safety on induction and when there are new circumstance that
warrant a refresher and should be repeated periodically.
Coordination and Cooperation
Where there is more than one employer occupying a building, they
should seek to cooperate and coordinate with each other.
Duties of Employees
These duties are similar to section 7 of the HASWA and Regulation
14 of MHSWR.
Licensed nuclear sites, ships, construction sites which are managed

by the HSE.
The fire service maintained by the secretary of state for defence
for premises solely occupied by armed forces.
Fire Inspectors authorised by the secretary of state for crown
premises.
Article 27 of the order covers the powers of inspectors and sets out
general power to do anything for the purpose of carrying out the
order. Specific powers include:
Ascertain if the order applies.
Identify responsible person.
Take samples of articles and substances to ascertain fire resistance
or flammability.
Enter premises at a reasonable time.
Inspect and take copies of records.
Other powers similar to section 20 of the act.




Part 3 Contd
In addition part 3 details the different notices that can be served.
These are:
Alterations Notice served if there is believed to be a serious risk
to persons should the premises be changed in relation to its
structure or change of use. The responsible person must then
inform the authority before making any changes with a copy of the
risk assessment and proposed changes.
Enforcement Notice issued when it is believed the responsible
person had failed to comply with any of the requirements set out in
the order. The then have to remedy the issues within a given time
frame, which should not be less than 28 days. The notice will detail
what is not compliant and may put measures that could be
considered.
Prohibition Notice Issued if there is believed to be a serious risk.
This would normally take effect immediately and have remedial
action that should be taken.
Being served with the notice is not an offence, but failure to comply
with the notice is an offence.
Part 4 Offences and Appeals

This gives details of appeals that can be made. Appeals should be
made within 21 days of the notice being served.
For alternation and enforcement notices, the notice may be
suspended until the hearing , whereas a prohibition notice will
remain in place.
Failure to comply with a notice can lead to a summary conviction.
This is a maximum fine of 5,000. On indictment, this could lead to
an unlimited fine.
Where a company is prosecuted for failure to comply with any
provisions of the order the penalties include a summary conviction,
maximum fine of 5,00, and on indictment, this can be an
unlimited fine and up to 2 years in prison.
Normally these are heard in a magistrates court unless deemed
more serious and then would be heard in the crown court.
Successful Fire Safety Management

The RRFSO imposes a duty on the responsible person to have fire
arrangements in place. The arrangements should consider the need for a
policy, organisational responsibilities, effective planned, implementation,
monitoring, audit and review.
Policy This should detail who has overall responsibility,
Organisation - This should detail general arrangements and
responsibilities such as who fire wardens and assessors are. The
competence levels should be defined to undertake certain roles and also
how it communicates its fire safety arrangements out to the workforce.
This should also include consultation with employees on fire safety
matters.
Planning and Implementation - Essential to implement fire safety
policies and procedures, and should include:
Identification of fire hazards in the workplace
Evaluate the risks that could be realized
Putting together an action plan based on the findings of the risk
assessment.
Development of procedures for fire fighting.
Arrangements for the control of dangerous substances.
Maintenance arrangements for protective measures.
Written fire instructions / training requirements
Measures for control and cooperation of occupants
System for recording fire incidents / fire drills.
Monitoring and Review - This is done to ensure a company is
complying with requirements. It should use proactive and reactive
techniques. The reviews should be regular, and allow for changes to the
company.
Auditing This will involve a systematic evaluation of the whole
management system for fire and check levels of compliance with its own
and external standards.
Post Fire Management
Investigating fires the purpose of investigating the fire may depend on
who is investigating. Internal investigations may seek to find the cause of
the fire and also to see how it can be prevented from occurring again. It
may be for gathering evidence for civil claims, or to defend any potential
criminal proceedings that could arise.
External investigations may include those from the fire and rescue service
to determine cause, gather evidence and potentially bring criminal
proceedings. Insurance companies may want to investigate to allow them
to defend any liabilities. The police may be involved if there is a suspected
crime such as fraud or arson. Forensic science may be involved in
suspected cases of arson or where they have been fatalities. The HSE may

Successful Fire Safety

Management

Successful Fire Safety

Management
Fire Investigation Procedure
False alarms may also be investigated to determine the cause of

the alarm and where this is excessive further action may be taken
such as a reduction in the level of response a company may
receive.
Reporting and Recording of Fire Incidents

Statutory Reporting. The responsible person may need to inform the
statutory body (i.e. the HSE when it is reportable under RIDDOR). The
following incidents must be reported in connection with work:
Death of any person (reported by the quickest practical means, followed
within 10 days of F2508).
Major Injuries to any person at work (reported by the quickest practical
means, followed within 10 days by F2508).
Incapacity of a person at work for more than 7 days (reported within 10
days on form F2508).
Dangerous Occurrence. The different types reportable are:
Electrical short circuit or overload causing fire or explosion.
Explosion, collapse or bursting of any closed vessel or associated
pipework.
Road tanker carrying a dangerous substance overturns, suffers
serious damage, catches fire, or the substance is released.
Dangerous substance conveyed by road is involved in a fire.
Explosion or fire resulting in suspension of normal work for more
than 24 hours.
Recording Of Incidents
If an injury occurs as a result of a fire, this should be recorded in the
accident book. Fire log books can also be used to record incidents of a
similar nature.
Fire Investigation Procedure - Continued
Element 2 Principles of Fire and Explosion
The process of gathering evidence will include:

Physical evidence such as photos, diagrams, CCTV
Observational evidence from eye witnesses and those who raised
the alarm.
Documentary evidence such as plans, risk assessments,
procedures etc
Locating the seat of the fire which may require specialist
knowledge.
Excavating the seat of the fire to determine the origin.
Once gathered and evaluated, the extent of the losses can be
established and cause identified. Once the cause has been
established, preventative measures can be put in place.
A full report should then be prepared and given to all relevant
parties.
Combustion Process.
Once all of the above has been completed, then the site cleanup
can begin and health & safety must be considered when doing so,
as specialist services may be required.
Combustion is a chemical reaction and this reaction can give off heat,
light, smoke or flames.
A fire investigation may start even before the fire has been
completely extinguished if it means evidence collecting can begin
where putting out the fire may lead to the crime scene being
destroyed. It is important to preserve as much of the scene as
possible to allow for this.
Fires will be classes as either:
Accidental - This is where a fire is not suspected as arson but by
some other means. The fire and rescue authority would use the
powers it has under the fire and rescue act to investigate and
pursue criminal action is there has been a breach in legislation.
Arson Set Fires - Arson is investigated by the fire and rescue
service to assist the police in bringing those who started the fire to
court.

Continued
Principles of Fire and

Explosion
Reporting and Recording of

Fire Incidents
Classification
of Fires
Fire Growth Fire and Heat Spread

The four methods by which the heat difference may be transmitted either
singularly or in combination are:
Conduction - this is where heat is transferred through solids, liquid or
gas (although most common in solids). For example, heat transfer the
structure of a building. Copper, iron and steel are good conductors. Can
be prevented with insulating with fire resistant materials.
Convection - convection only occurs in liquids and gases. When a liquid
or gas is heated it expands and therefore becomes less dense. The lighter
liquid or gas rises, being displaces by cooler and therefore denser liquid or
gas. The cooler liquid or gas in turn becomes heated and so a circulation is
set up. Can be prevented with good separation and compartmentation of
building.
Radiation radiated heat is transferred from one body to another by heat
rays passing through intervening space. As with light, radiated heat
travels in a straight line until it encounters an opaque object where it is
absorbed. It can also be reflected and magnified. Can be prevented
through space separation and physical barriers.
Direct Burning - one of the most common methods of fire spread is
where combustible materials are burning and the flames, embers and
Factors influencing fire growth

Several factors influence the growth rate of a fire:
The amount of oxygen available will be considerably enhance
growth, This can be when windows are left open, or mechanical
systems are left running.
The amount of vapour released will affect growth rate. This is
dependant on the type and size of the material and also the
temperature to which it is being exposed. Petrol for example will
easily ignite, whereas wood will not.
Method and style of construction of a building buildings that are
open plan or have large open spaces will offer little resistance to
fire as a result of free air circulating, unless the fire is extinguished
by some sort of suppression system.
There may also be open stairways, lifts, ill fitting doors and ceiling
voids that will offer easy pathways for fire and smoke to circulate
throughout the building.
Materials used in construction should also be considered as
depending on the type of materials used they will be have in
different ways.
Construction Materials - Steel

Steel may require surface protection. If it is not protected it
may be in danger of collapse when subject to fire or heat
transfer. Structural steel will lose 2/3rds of its strength at
600 C and will distort and sag. Steel is subject to expansion
when it gets hot but where it is used as structural beams this
might lead to walls being pushed out and subsequent
collapse.
Aluminium alloys are increasingly being used but they have
a lower melting point and rapid loss of strength between 100
225 and their higher thermal conductivity.
Steel and alloy structural materials should be protected from
the effects of fire and this can be achieved by:
Sprayed coatings.
Intumescent coatings
Solid protection
By design (e.g. suspended ceilings).
Fire Growth Fire and Heat

Spread
Construction Materials Steel
Classification of Fires
Factors Influencing Fire

Growth
Construction Materials
Concrete
Where this is used in areas where it may be subject to stresses, it is usually
reinforced with steel bars. If the bars heat up they will begin to lose their strength
and at about 550 C will lose 50% of their strength. This is known as the Critical
Temperature. The bars also act as a conductor of heat and may increase the
likelihood of the concrete spalling.
Timber
When subject to fire conditions timber will act in different ways depending on the
type and size of timber used (thin timbers may promote a fire, large section retain
structural integrity and the charred surface will act as an insulator.
Timber can also be treated with fire retardant materials to increase its level of
safety within fires and the application of a coating can increase its classification of 3
or 4 surface spread of flame rating to a class 1 rating.
It goes through a Pyrolysis stage when burning occurs and thermal decomposition
occurs which causes charring protecting the timber underneath.
Brick
Readily used in construction as they are non combustible and fire resistant, they
may also be used to protect other parts of the structure from fire.
The level of fire resistance offered by brickwork will depend on the thickness of the
brick itself and also how the brick has been made i.e. hollow bricks tend to be more
prone to the front facings breaking away.
The contents of a building

The contents that are used and stored need to be taken into account when
considering the risk of fire spread. Materials are rated into either high or normal risk
categories and this is based on two tests. The first depends on the maximum rate of
temperature rise of a materials and the second is the amount of smoke produced.
Some materials will rate high on one, but low on the other but may have an impact.
Materials that rate high in both categories are polystyrene and polyurethane and
acrylic fibres.
Location
Where a fire is burning under open conditions (e.g. outside), the heat produced will
have very little effect on the materials burning as the heat will rise and disperse.
However if a fire is in an enclosed area it may behave totally different and the
speed in which it grows can be quite dramatic. There are two particular fire
conditions which should be considered.
Flashover This may occur where a fire is burning in a room with an adequate
supply of air. The initial fire will radiate massive amounts of hear and other
materials present will eventually reach their spontaneous ignition temperature.
Backdraught This normally occurs when a fire has started in an enclosed room
with little airflow. The fire will burn but use the air quickly, but instead of going out,
it will smoulder and produce large quantities of smoke and gases that would
normally burn off. The mixture will not burn until it receives oxygen (such as
someone opens a door). The fire then receives the oxygen it needs and the unburnt
Smoke
Most fire deaths in the UK can be attributed to the effects of smoke
whether it is from inhalation or from reduced visibility. In complete
combustion the fuel will be completely burnt giving off primarily
water vapour and carbon dioxide. Unfortunately, in a fire, complete
combustion is rare and so we end up with smoke, which is a
combination of unburnt carbonaceous materials and hot gases.
These tend to be toxic and will include carbon monoxide,
hydrochloric acid and certain cyanides depending on the material
being burnt.
The movement of smoke depends on the temperature of the
smoke. Cold smoke will tend lie at lower levels reducing visibility for
occupants, whereas hot smoke will get taken up on air currents
towards ceiling and higher and if restricted will spread laterally
across ceilings and eventually fill the room. Where large amounts of
smoke are being produced from a fire this can happen very quickly.
The Principles of Explosion and Explosive Combustion

An explosion is a sudden increase in volume and release of energy
in a violent manner and usually includes high temperatures and
pressure waves. An explosion can occur when the vapour, gas or
dust is within its flammable limits (the right mixture with air).
Explosions can be classed as either detonations i.e. the most
devastating form of an explosion where the flame front speeds are
supersonic or deflagrations where the flame front speed is less
than the speed of sound.
The chances of a detonation occurring in a fuel / air mixture
depends on the type of fuel being used. Some high risk fuels are
acetylene or the formation of hydrogen gas from battery charging.
Deflagrations occur generally through thermal conductivity where
hot burning materials heat the next layer of cold material and
ignites it. This will continue until all the material is used up.
Potential explosions that could occur in the workplace include:
Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosions (UVCE)
Confined Vapour Closed Explosions (CVCE)
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVE)
The contents of a Building

and Location
The Principles of Explosion

and Explosive Combustion
Construction Materials
Concrete, Timber and Brick
Smoke
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions

Failure of the pressure vessel containing flammable liquid gas on
exposure to fire can be due to weakening of the portion of the
vessel exposed to the fire, and / or the excessive pressure caused
by the effect of heat on the vessel contents. This results in a Boiling
Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion.
If a liquid is above its critical temperature, and pressure the liquid
will flash immediately to its gaseous state when it expands to
atmospheric pressure, and temperature due to the rupturing of the
tank or vessel. Damage is caused by:
A blas wave due to relief of internal pressure. This is not a major
consideration except near the event.
Thermal radiation from a fireball produced by the massive burning
of the contents of the vessel in the air.
Projection of large fragments for considerable distances on violent
rupture of the tank.
The main effects are missiles being launched or burns for those
who are onlookers or emergency service staff.
Dust Explosions
Within the workplace if there is the possibility of explosions occurring then
suitable control measures need to be taken and these will include, for
dust:
Control of Ignition Sources naked flames, faulty electrical equipment,
overheating of plant, impact sparks, electrostatic discharges,
spontaneous heating, smoking materials. In consideration of these hazards
it is necessary to control all flames and flame cutting equipment, such as
using cold cutting or removal of combustible dust. Often permits to work
are used to ensure safe systems of work.
Use of Inert Atmosphere - When combustible dusts are handled in
closed vessels oxygen content can be reduced by the introduction of inert
atmospheres (e.g. nitrogen).
Control of dust cloud formation - Good housekeeping is vital for
controlling dust clouds. Air lines or brushing should never be used.
Vacuum systems with filters are effective, or the use of dampened powder
or pelletised products.
Plant Controls - Process deviations need to be controlled, and as such
the plant may require continuous monitoring. Filters used in plant
equipment need to be checked to ensure they do not become blocked so
dust does not escape. Local exhaust would need to be alarmed and
interlocked in case of failure. The use of detectors can help to monitor
sparks or flowing materials and set off systems such as water to help cool
and extinguish potential ignition sources.
Dust Explosions
Explosion Protection
Dust explosions are very similar to gas and vapour explosions although in
dust explosions we tend to get two explosions, these being Primary and
Secondary explosions.
Primary and Secondary the concentration limits needed for a dust
explosion rarely occur outside of process vessels, therefore a primary
explosion would normally take place in mixers, hoppers and silos etc.
However the pressure wave and air turbulence created form the explosion
may dislodge the dust within the surrounding areas and if that dust is then
ignited, by either the initial explosion or another ignition source the
consequences can be devastating and this is known as the secondary
explosion.
Conditions for explosions to Occur
For dust or gas explosions to occur then certain conditions need to be
present and these include:
The dust / gas needs to be combustible
It needs to be within its flammable limits
Must be capable of becoming airborne
An ignition source present and with dust of sufficient heat energy.
Sufficient oxygen to be present
Particle size of dust to be small enough.
This section accepts the fact an explosion has taken place, and considers
the measure necessary to minimise the effects of the explosion on plant
and people.
The main types of explosion protection include:
Explosion Relief Venting
Containment and Suppression
Explosion Relief Venting
This is the most common and simplest methods. It introduces a deliberate
point of weakness into the system, which is an explosion relief vent. To
work successfully, the vent must activate at a pressure well below that
which the plant it is protecting can withstand. Vents are normal in the form
of a lightweight panel or door weighing less than 10KG/m2. Vents need to
be sited correctly so to be clear of obstruction so release is not inhibited.
Vents need to be restrained so they do not become missiles. If a secondary
explosion is likely, the vent should not discharge inside the building.
Explosion Suppression
Explosion suppression systems are often used on major plant items. The
suppression system will detect an explosion in its early stages by the
increase in pressure and a sensor linked to a rapid acting device that
injects a suppressant material into the duct into the path of the explosion
Dust Explosions
Explosion Protection
Boiling Liquid Expanding

Vapour Explosions
Dust Explosions
Causes and Prevention and Fire

Causes of fires can be divided into two main categories; those that
are started accidentally and those that are started maliciously
(arson). All fires that are attended by the fire service are recorded
and used to compile statistics. These show more fires start
between 18.00 06.00 than during daytime hours.
It is considered that accidental fires are responsible for more than
half the fires in the UK, and these are caused by:
Peoples actions this can involve the misuse of equipment or
appliances or careless actions.
Defective Equipment The use of defective equipment in the
workplace can have serious consequences for example,
maintenance costs could be high so the frequency is lessened.
For a fire to start (in most cases), there has to be a source of
ignition present and it has been found that for accidental fires the
most common sources include:
Sparks from equipment or process, static electricity, welding, non
intrinsically safe equipment used in a flammable atmosphere,
smoking materials, hot surfaces, portable heaters, cooking
equipment, overloaded electrical circuits and light bulbs.
Fires caused by Electrical Appliances

Examples of defective equipment or peoples actions that may lead to fires
starting include:
Lead wires damaged, lamp taken into explosive atmosphere / placed
against flammable material, storage of materials on space heaters,
portable heaters not taken out of commission, temporary electrical
installations not complying with IEE rules, electric motors, loose
connections, inadequate maintenance, static electricity not properly
controlled.
Lightning
Lighting strikes may cause power surges or heating of cables or other
equipment. Any building has the possibility of being struck although taller
buildings, large plants and tank farms may be more at risk.
Cooking
It is common practice now that employers will provide either fully catered
facilities or an area where they can prepare food for themselves. This can
cause a number of hazards such as: faulty cooking / electrical appliances,
cooking appliances left on or unattended, use of flammable oils or fats,
clothes etc left near a source of ignition (e.g. on a heater, grill or hob).
Heating and Lighting Systems
The misuse of fixed / portable heating systems and lighting equipment by
Fire Risks in Construction and Maintenance Work

Serious fires tend to happen in existing buildings when either
construction or maintenance work is being carried out. It is
important to realise during these periods, extra fire precautions
may be needed and existing fire risk assessments reviewed. If any
fire detection is deactivated due to the work, it is essential
compensatory measures are put in place. Extra patrols may be
needed.
When carrying out the assessment it is worth considering:
The loss of exits and escape routes.
Increase in the amount of flammable substances.
Uncontrolled storage of substances.
Accumulation of waste materials including packaging materials.
Wood and sawdust in work areas.
Burning of waste material (bonfires)
Hot Work (welding, cutting tools)
Bulk Storage Issues.
Welding and Cutting Operations

Welding, cutting and other flame using gear has created many fires
and proper control is essential to reduce this potential.
Work must only be carried out after a site inspection and work
permit has been issued.
Ensure a fire operative trained in the use of fire fighting equipment
is available.
If work is being carried out above other plant or flammable
material, remove the items or cover with flame resistant blanket or
covers.
Ensure work area is free from other hazards.
If oxygen is being used in a confined space beware of producing an
oxygen rich atmosphere.
Ensure hose lengths are kept to a minimum.
Close all valves on the cylinders when not in use.
Do not use greases or oils on valves.
Use of non return valves and the fitting of flashback arresators.
Fires caused by Electrical

Appliances / Lightning /
Cooking / Heating &
Lighting Systems
Welding and Cutting

Operations
Causes and Prevention of

Fires
Fire Risks in Construction

and Maintenance Work
Motives for Arson
Waste Disposal
It is important to consider the types and sizes of waste produced
when considering waste disposal. Waste should never be allowed to
accumulate, so regular removal is required. Waste materials are a
ready source for fuel so suitable storage areas should be
considered and the position of waste skips so as not to promote the
spread of fire.
Waste building materials should only be by a licensed waste
contractor to a recognised landfill site. It is important to ensure that
fire or explosion hazards are not created so several questions need
to be answered.
Is the waste easily ignitable?
Is there the potential for the formation of a dust cloud if the waste
is disturbed?
Are flammable vapours given off the waste production?
Are the materials to be disposed of incompatible?
Arson
Results of are attacks are: Loss of life and injuries, business
interruption, financial losses, damage to the environment, loss of
goodwill from customers, heritage destroyed.
Arson costs an estimated 1m per day insurance and that over
50% of all fires causing losses in excess of 250,000 are as a result
of arson. Annually more than half of the 800m direct costs of fires
are attributable to arson.
Arson fires tend to be much bigger and costly because they are
normally started under ideal fire conditions in that: fuel may be
brought on site to assist the fire, fires may be started in vulnerable
areas of the building, sabotage of protection measures, ventilation
may be aided by leaving windows and doors open.
Arsonists tend to work under the cover of darkness so more likely
to happen during the night or darker months.
A study in the 90s of reasons why arson is committed, proposed for a

three tier system:
Arson with a motive
Insurance fraud
Contractual matters
Intimidation
Concealment of other crimes
Revenge or jealousy
Racial / ethnic
Motiveless Arson
Clinical psychosis
Pyromania
Criminal damage
Mental disorders / incapacity
Alcohol or drug abuse
Juvenile Fire Involvement
Fire Play
Fire Setting
Motiveless Arson
Studies undertaken so far only seem to be a small step in gaining an
understanding of the psychology of arsonists and the subject is still seen
as a new science.
Are you at Risk?

Several factors will influence whether your business is at risk:
Location
Is the business in an inner city area?
Are the premises isolated?
Does the are have a high rate of criminal activity?
Has the area suffered a higher than average number of fires?
Are there empty premises surrounding your property?
Security
Is there a perimeter fence and is it in good condition?
Are there areas that have no lighting or poorly lit?
Is CCTV installed, and does it cover all areas of the site?
Are bushes and hedges overgrown?
Access
How many entrances are used to gain access to the site?
Are all windows and doors closed during periods of inactivity?
Are there restricted areas on site, are they adhered to?
Arson
Are you at Risk?
Waste Disposal
Motives for Arson
Are you at Risk?
Other Fire Prevention and Precaution Measures
Examples of reducing the risk are:

Prohibiting smoking to designated areas
Storing fuel in locked containers.
Pruning trees to prevent access to roof tops
Trimming hedges to prevent cover for arsonists
Adequate lighting outside
Windows and doors in good repair and locks working
Security access control to the building
Gaps beneath doors needs to be sealed to prevent lit paper
being put under.
CCTV used as a deterrent and means of detection.
Rubbish not allowed to accumulate. Skips should be at least
6 metres away from the building.
Staff awareness and training on risks or arson, intruders etc.
Daily checks a simple check of the premises at the start of

the day will help ensure a property is safe to occupy.
Inspection Under Article 17 of the RRFSO there is a
requirement to maintain fire safety within the workplace, and
to assist this companies need to carry out inspections of the
workplace. The purpose of the inspections are to:
Aid in the prevention of fires.
Ongoing staff awareness of Fire Safety.
Monitor fire safety performance.
Ensure means of escape are maintained.
Prevention of Electrical Fires
Safe Systems of Work
Ensure PPM of all equipment and circuits is carried out.

Ensure temporary circuits are temporary. They should comply with IEE
regs and three months duration maximum.
Provide correct equipment in flammable conditions. HSE code of practice
C.P.1003-1, 2, and 3.
Ensure good housekeeping.
Keep electric motor vents clean and no storage across them.
Equipment used is dust atmosphere should be totally dust excluding.
Where materials may generate static electricity, earthing and bonding is
necessary. Humidification or Ionisation may be needed to prevent static
from forming.
Lightning
Where lighting conductors are installed as on tank farms, these should be
maintained top ensure lightning strikes would be directed along a desired
route and also:
High enough to prevent a fire occurring from an arc on contact.
Continuous through to earth
Kept free of corrosion and any properly earthed if large enough.
Must not pass near any other potential conductors
Must not pass through flammable material and earthing must be at least
A step by step procedure that will enable a task to be carried out safely
and is agreed by management and employees. When a SSOW is designed
it is usual to take into account the fire hazards associated with the:
People training, behaviour, fire awareness, knowledge, and level of
supervision.
Equipment safe to use in environment, maintained and inspected.
Materials type present, form of the materials (e.g. dust, gases).
Environment heating, lighting, ventilation.
The frequency of inspectional may be weekly, monthly etc

but should be determined by the level of risk within the
business.
Safety Procedures This should be developed to establish control within

the company to ensure fire hazards / risks are not imported into the
workplace. Procedures would also need to be established at purchasing
and procurement level to prevent incorrect equipment and materials being
present.
Permits to work Organisations use a range of PTWs but the essential one
in regards to fire is the HOT WORKS Permit. This would be used whenever
any hot work such as welding and cutting is being undertaken. The permit
would typically include: Statement of the work, description of plant,
warning of residual risk, how the plant has been made safe, precautions to
Prevention of Electrical Fires

/ Lightning
Safe Systems of Work
Are you at Risk?
Fire Precaution and

Prevention Measures
Control of Contactors
Fire Protection in Buildings The Building Regulations 2000
Having contractors on site can increase a risk of fire. This can be

due to the nature of the work, poor selection of contactors or the
lack of control when they are on site.
Under the RRFSO it is the duty of the responsible person to consult
with other person and to ensure that they understand the
preventative and protective measures in place. A number of safety
passport schemes exist such as the Client Contractor National
Safety Group, and as well as health and safety, fire prevention is
also assessed. It is reported that where such schemes are in use,
incidents of fire have reduced by up to 50%
The primary role of the regulations is concerned with the aspects of

the building design and construction, which apply to new premises
and material alterations to existing ones. The regulations detail the
requirements with which building work must comply and these
include requirements for fire safety. The regulations are subdivided
into fourteen approved documents Part A Part P.
Approved document B (guidance on Fire safety to the Building
Regulations) provides extensive and sometimes complicated
guidance on what is required and need to be studied in depth to
extract all the relevant requirements. The document is split into
two volumes and it is volume 2 that details the requirements for
buildings other than dwelling houses.
B1 That there is a satisfactory standard of means of escape for
persons in the event of fire in a building and the means of giving an
alarm for fire.
B2 That fire spread over the internal linings of the building is
inhibited.
B3 The ensure the stability of buildings in the event of fire, fire
separation between buildings, automatic fire suppression where
needed.
B4 That external walls and roofs have adequate resistance to the
spread of fire.
B5 To ensure satisfactory access for fire appliances to the
building. of a Structure
Elements
Maintenance
It is an organisations responsibility to ensure standards for
maintenance are observed and implemented, and equipment is
properly maintained which will enhance its working life and reduce
the risk of failure or risk of injury to people or fire. It is good
practice to have planned preventative maintenance in place of any
critical equipment. A plan will set out when and how often
equipment should be inspected, serviced and maintained and
detail the competency of the persons carrying out the work.
Storage of Flammables
There are requirements for the correct storage of
flammables. The Control of Major Accident Hazards Regs
1999 (COMAH), give specific guidance and requirements for
storage and controls. Flammable materials should be kept
well away from sources of ignition and stored in well
ventilated areas to prevent the build up of fumes. Leaks
should be controlled to avoid the build up of vapours which
can be heavier than air and travel large distances. The
guidance is that up to 50 litres can be stored within the
workplace providing that a fire resisting cabinet or bin is
used.
LPGs are also a significant concern. The total amount to be
kept at a premises should be to a minimum and below 70kg.
Full and empty LPGs should be kept separate and within
secure locations, either in open air or in a ventilated store
room.
Within approved document B elements of a structure is a term

applied to the main structural load bearing elements of a structure
which may include:
Structural Frames of a building or other beams or columns
A floor
Load bearing walls or load bearing parts of walls.
An external wall
A compartment wall (although not necessarily load bearing).
The requirement for fire resistance for elements of a structure
Within buildings the principle of fire resistant structures is to ensure
the integrity of any fire compartments. Fire resistant materials may
be made of blockwork, brickwork, and plaster finishes which may
give over 60 minutes of fire protection. Hollow stud walling with
plasterboard on either side finished with a skim of plaster will give
30 minutes.
It is not always easy to tell if a material is fire protecting or not so
use of approved contractors is recommended.
Storage of Flammables
Elements of a Structure
Control of Contractors and

Maintenance
The Building Regulations

2000 Approved Document
B
Factors Affecting Fire Resistance

The fire resistance of an element of construction is a
measure of its ability to withstand the effects of fire in one or
more ways including:
Resistance to collapse the ability to maintain its load
bearing capacity.
Fire Penetration the ability to maintain its integrity so
that fire and smoke will be unable to penetrate the structure.
Transfer of excessive heat the ability to produce insulation
at high temperatures so other items on the other side will
not ignite.
A number of factors will need to be considered when
assessing the degree of fire protection needed. These are:
The likely fire severity
Numbers and type of people within the building
The height of the building.
Common Failures in Fire Resistance

Some construction materials that are used in modern
buildings are a concern, most notably the use of the
sandwich panel.
Sandwich panels consist of two outer linings of sheet metal
which are then infilled with a heat resistant material such as
polyurethane or certain foams. When buildings are on fire it
has been known that the panels fall out of their frames and
can cause a collapse of the building. Once the foam infill is
on fire, this can lead to fire spread.
Wherever work is undertaken and holes made, it is important
to use good fire resistant material.
This is now normally achieved by the use of intumescent
materials that upon contact with heat are designed to
expand and then act as insulation thus reducing the rate of
heat transfer. This is know as fire stopping.
Compartmentation to Inhibit Fire Spread

The spread of fire within a building can be restricted by subdividing buildings into fire compartments by means of walls and
floors constructed of fire resistant materials along with fire doors.
The object of this is two fold:
1 To prevent the rapid fire spread which could endanger lives.
2 To reduce the chances of fires becoming large as these pose a
bigger risk.
Building regulations limit the size of compartments in some types
of building. The size is dependant on the use and load of the
building, the height and availability of a sprinkler system.
Compartments will normally withstand fire for 30 minutes but may
be designed for longer periods according to the design, purpose
and use of the building.
The compartment should minimise any damage to the building by
confining the fire and fire spread. Stairways should also form
separate compartments to limit vertical spread.
Where there are opening in compartments, there is always
potential for fire and smoke to penetrate. A common example is the
incorrect use of fire doors. Other common devices used for
protection include fire dampers for ductwork and steel shutters in
wall openings. In large opening in area like false ceilings, control of
spread can be gained using fire blankets to create a barrier and
prevent spread.
Internal Fire Growth and Lining Materials
Internal linings mean the materials or products used in lining any partition,
wall, ceiling or other internal structure.
When determining the risk of fire spread and its growth in relation to the
lining materials used the following properties should be considered.
How easy does the material ignite?
How fast will flame spread across the surface of the material?
How fast is heat released from the material?
How much smoke is produced by the material?
Room linings should not be easily ignitable, so should be considered as
part of the assessment, as they may contribute to the phenomenon called
flashover.
Appendix A in Approved Document B describes the different classes of
performance of materials and the appropriate methods of test which are
discussed next.
Surface spread of flame test
This test is used to establish if material has a surface spread of flame that
is either class 4 (being the worst) through to class 1 (The best). Class 0 is
often quoted for some materials these being class 1 that have undergone
a further test to ensure they will not contribute to the propagation of fire.
Class 0 are often used in escape routes.
Common Failures in Fire

Resistance
Internal Fire Growth and

Lining Materials
Factors Affecting Fire

Resistance
Compartmentation to
Inhibit Fire Spread
Surface Spread of Flame test
Means of Escape
This test is used to establish if material has a surface spread

of flame that is either class 4 (being the worst) through to
class 1 (The best). Class 0 is often quoted for some materials
these being class 1 that have undergone a further test to
ensure they will not contribute to the propagation of fire.
The definition is: Structural means whereby (in the event of a fire) a
safe route or routes is provided for persons to travel from any point
in a building to a place of safety.
By looking at each component we can ensure that our premises
provide a suitable means of escape.
Structural would normally form part of the structure of the
building and therefore generally unacceptable means of escape
include throw out ladders and chutes, as they cannot be relied
upon.
Travel It should be possible to travel away from the fire, not
travelling excessive distances to a safe place.
Place of safety This ultimate place of safety should be in the open
air and clear from the effects of the fire. However where this is not
possible, an area of comparative safety may be used such as a
protected stairwell, whereby they can then continue onto a place of
safety.
BS5588 Part 11 and Approved Document B give more guidance on
this.
Class 0 are often used in escape routes and circulation

spaces where requirements are more stringent.
Suitable materials for use to limit spread and growth of a fire
would include:
Exposed brickwork
Mineral fibre board
Exposed block work
Plasterboard and skim
Fire retardant coatings
External Fire Spread
Principles for Design of a Means of Escape
The construction of external walls and separation between

buildings to prevent external fire spread are closely related.
The chances of a fire spreading across an open space
between buildings and the consequences of it depend on:
The size and intensity of the fire
The distance between the buildings
The fire protection given by their facing sides
The risk presented to people in other buildings.
The objective of these factors is to limit the spread of fire to
any adjacent buildings. The elements of a structure will have
a minimum of 30 minutes fire spread and in most cases 60
minutes dependent on the distance between buildings.
The distance is usually 1 metre however if the space is less,
the regulations impose other requirements on the nature and
type of materials that can be used.
Turn aware from the fire and process along a recognisable escape
route.
Alternative Escape Routes
No excess travel distances
Escape routes must lead to a place of safety
Limitation of routes through access rooms.
Basic Occupancy Calculations
The principles of these based on that depending on the situation, a
person will require a certain amount of space measured in square
metres. Some typical occupancy factors are:
Offices
6.0 m
Standing Areas in Bars etc 0.3 m
Dining Rooms
1.0 m
Factory Areas, Workshops etc
5.0 m
External Fire Spread
Means of Escape Continued
Surface Spread of Flame

Test
Means of Escape
Requirements for Means of Escape
When considering if the means of escape is adequate, the assessor

should consider the following aspects:
Escape Routes Most escape routes will normally be entrances /
exits that are provided for every day use.
Protected Routes to ensure that peoples route out of the building
will not be compromised in the early stages of a fire, so stairways
and corridors need to be protected.
Alternative Exits where possible there should be alternative exits
available, but where this is not always possible, fire protection
needs to be determined by risk. Where alternative exits are
provided they should normally be located at 45 apart unless the
route to them is separated by fire resisting construction.
Travel distances The distance travelled to a place of safety. There
is no set legal limit for distance, however guidance documents
should be considered. Acceptable distances should be done on risk,
number of escape routes. Some examples are:
Where more than route is provided 25m in high risk, 45m in
normal risk, 60m in low risk.
Where only a single route is provided 12m high risk, 18m
normal, 25m low
Corridors these should be sub-divided with self closing doors

where less than 30m in length (45 m in offices and factories).
These need to be constructed of fire resisting material when
leading in one direction only or when serving sleeping
accommodation. It is essential that corridors are free from
obstructions, tripping or fire hazards and as a minimum would
normally be 1 metre wide.
Fire doors serve two purposes:
To prevent the spread of fire and smoke
Ensure a means of escape for people in the building.
Escape doors should always open in the direction of travel where
they are used by more than 50 people, at or near foot of stairs, exit
from high fire risk areas and if they are in areas used for public
assembly.
As a rule of thumb a fire door should:
It will normally have three hinges
Not be restricted from closing (e.g. self closing or percomatic
closer fitted)
New doors will be fitted with intumescent strips and smoke seals.
New doors should have a coloured plus inserted into one of its
edges.
If an escape route leads to an alternative exit but initially only allow

travel in a single direction, ten that distance should be treated as a
single route provided distance, yet total should not exceed that of
more than one route.
Distances are measures from the furthest point in the room to the
final exit or to a vertical storey exit.
Access Rooms Route from inner room through access rooms
should be avoided unless those in inner rooms have means of
awareness of fire (i.e. vision panel, automatic fire detection or min
500m gap between partition wall and ceiling).
High risk areas should not be used for access rooms and inner
rooms not used for sleeping.
Stairs and stairways should be sufficient and adequate in size.
Width of stairs should be no less than 1 metre and not excessively
wise with handrails and should not reduce in width at any point.
Low risk workplaces, not more than two floors should not exceed
less than 45m for one exit, and 60m for more than exit.
Accommodation stairs (additional to means of escape) need not be
The colours of the plugs donate the fire standard of the door. This
is:
A white circle with a red dot is an FD20/20 which required
intumescent strips to be fitted.
A white circle with a green dot is an FD20/20 which does NOT
require intumescent strips to be fitted.
FD30/30 means that it is a fire door, which has a 30 minute
stability rating and a 30 minute integrity rating.
Stability is the time at which the door collapsed during test.
Integrity is the time that cracks and other openings exist whereby
hot gases and flames passed through the door and caused flaming
of a cotton wool pad under test.
Lighting and signs once the design and the provision of means of
escape have been fulfilled it is essential to ensure that is can be
safely used and as such it will need to be maintained.
Where the means of escape has no natural or borrowed lighting
then the provision of artificial lighting will be required.
Requirements for Means of

Escape - 2

Escape - 4

Escape - 1

Escape - 3

Lighting it is usual to install a form of secondary lighting in the event of a
power failure. The provision of emergency lighting is a requirement under
the RRFSO where escape routes need to be illuminated, and other
legislation such as the building regulations.
Emergency lighting should clearly indicate escape routes and provide
adequate illumination and indicate call points and fire fighting equipment.
Emergency lighting can either be:
Maintained the lighting is on all the time
Non Maintained the lighting only operates when the usual lighting
system fails.
The lighting can be incorporated into existing light fittings or can be stand
alone which would normally be powered by batteries or an automatic start
generator.
There may also be used photo-illuminescent materials or lines of LEDs
that can be used to mark escape routes at low levels.
Most lighting needs to be manually tested (unless self testing), and this
should be done as follows:
Daily check for faults and normal power, if a maintained system then
check for the LED lamp, fault found to be rectified and recorded.
Monthly a monthly function test to ensure the lighting is energised under
conditions of a power failure.
Annually a full check and discharge test of the system by a competent
engineer.

Signage There are two acceptable types of fire safety signs:
BS5449 a white pictogram on a green background which depicts
a person running, framed in a doorway which is an exit. These
signs may or may not have directional arrows.
EC Directive signs a white pictogram on a green background and
a plain white block denoting an exit, again with or without
directional arrows.
The purpose is to ensure that a means to an exit can be seen from
any part of the building.
Where there is a choice of route, the directional signs should lead
to the shortest route and place of safety.
Maintenance of escape routes regular inspections should be
carried out to ensure escape routes are free from obstructions and
hazards. These include:
Portable heaters
LPG cylinders
Boilers and cooking appliances
Stored furniture and coat racks

Fire Safety Records it is important to keep up to date records of
your fire risk assessments as this will allow you to manage fire
safety properly. It is good to keep records that demonstrate that
you are inspecting, maintaining and servicing items such as:
Means of escape routes, signs etc
Fire fighting equipment
Fire detection and alarms
Emergency lighting
Instruction and Training
Fixed equipment including sprinklers, smoke venting etc
Assembly areas
Alarms
Lighting and signs
Instruction, training and drills
These records can be kept in the fire log book or in some other
suitable format.
Requirements for Means of Escape Means of escape for disabled

persons
People with hearing or sight impairment, or mental illness or staff
or visitors with impairments (temporary or otherwise) may be at
risk during a fire. Most people of this nature will be able to use
normal means of escape but if they are a wheelchair user special
consideration must be given due to the possibility of space
constraints and getting a wheelchair down stairs.
In some cases like these, this would involve the use of refuge areas,
evacuation lifts or other facilities.
Evacuation Lifts Designed in accordance with BS5588 (fire
precautions in the design and construction of buildings). The lift
would normally be in a fire resistant enclosure and have a separate
power supply from the main building.
Refuges A refuge area is a place when someone can wait in
relative safety until assistance arrives. Refuges should be part of or
open up onto protected stairways and have a minimum of 30
minutes resistance.
If staff or visitors have any visual impairment, the use of tactile

Escape - 6

Escape - 8

Escape - 5

Escape - 7
Fire Detection and Fire Alarms
Evacuation plans it is important to consider disabled persons in

evacuation plans and any arrangements developed are recorded. It
is best to use a Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP).
This will include specific needs of the person.
Where it is likely that people will need assistance other than your
own employees then it is also advisable to have a similar system to
a PEEP but called a Generic Emergency Evacuation Plan
(GEEP).
This may require that the person is evacuated down a protected
stairwell and it is unlikely that a wheelchair can be taken this way
since it may cause an obstruction or fall. In these cases the use of
an evacuation chair may be helpful. These however must only be
operated by trained people so as to minimise risk to other people
and to those operating the chair (such as manual handling injuries).
Such chairs usually only operate by taking someone down the
stairs rather than up.
The best possible fire alarm system should be designed and

installed as to be:
Electrical equipment and wiring to be exclusive to that
system.
Power Supply battery operated, trickle charged from mains
supply.
Cable MICC, hard metal sheathed, cable in conduit
(external overhead lines, underground cables)
Call points to give continuous signal.
Signal - audible visual, standard throughout, distinctive.
Central point indicator board, switchboard, to fire brigade.
The system may need to actuate auxiliary services such as
call points which may actuate fire extinguishing systems,
close windows or doors, open or close tank valves or close
cover over tanks.
The purpose of a fire alarm is to warn occupants of a building to a

fire situation. This is usually achieved by an audible warning device
such as a bell or siren. Any audible alarm should be capable of
being heard over any background noise and distinguishable from
other noises. Considerations must be made for the hearing or sight
impaired.
The simplest of systems are manually operated such as word of
mouth, bells, whistles, hand operated sirens.
Though relatively low cost and readily available, they are limited in
cover of area and only if someone is operating them (which they
may not be in smoke filled room) or they may be stolen or lost.
A lot of systems are now going to stand alone call points and
sounders. The benefit of these being that once operated the person
does not have to stay in the area, but the sounder must still be
heard.
Systems are set in motion by hand then derive their power for
operation from a non-manual source. These will continue to sound
until switched off and can be costly to install.
Call points This is normally the standard method of operation for a fire
alarm system. Employees should know where their nearest call point is
and how to operate it. Where there are call points, the following should be
considered:
Sited on escape routes.
Distance Positioned so that no person has to travel more than 30 metres
(45 actual) to operate an alarm from any part of the premises.
Uniformity throughout the premises.
Safe Position operator must not be exposed to undue risk.
Conspicuous well illuminated (day or night).
Height 1.4 metres above floor level. This may need to be lowered to
accommodate wheelchair users.
Operation standard throughout the premises.
Audible Range
Minimum of 65db is required in normal areas or 5db above any
background noise which persists for more than 30 seconds.
Where high noise levels exist the use of visual warnings to be used.
Where sleeping is available, then 75dv is required at the bed head.
A loss of 5db per door should be considered, therefore a sounder per
bedroom is needed.
Fire Detection and Fire

Alarms - 1

Alarms - 3

Escape - 9

Alarms - 2
Fire Alarm Zones zoning is a convenient way of dividing the

building up into manageable areas to allow a fire to be
quickly located. Zoning features include:
Behavioural and Social Issues as part of the risk

assessment, the behaviour of people should be considered.
People tend not to behave how we expect them to when
exposed to a fire alarm and may not evacuate immediately
or in an orderly manner.
Fire marshals may need to be appointed to ensure timely
and complete evacuation, and practice drills should be
carried out to ensure people display the correct behaviour.
Behaviour can be linked to social issues such as peer
pressure, such as waiting for someone else to move. In some
cases coded alarms may alert fire marshals and associated
staff which then prepare for the full alarm which helps
prevent panic and distress. This is good when where is a
large number of people such as shopping centres or
nightclubs.
The floor area of any zone should not exceed 2000m.

A building with a floor area of less than 200m may be
considered as one zone.
A zone should normally cover one storey only (unless it is a
shaft)
The maximum distance to locate a fire should not exceed
60m.
Alarm receiving centres this is a centre that is manned 24
hours a day, provided by commercial fire organisations that
alarm systems are linked to. The operator taking the call
would then contact the fire and rescue service.
There are many factors to consider when deciding on what type of

system to install. These are:
Property Risk where the organisation is looking to protect
property only by using AFDs then a type P system may be used.
Type Ps are subdivided into:
P1 Automatic detection installed throughout the entire building
to be protected.
P2 Automatic detection in designated areas only.
When installing P systems it is important to consider that property
risk does not also prevent a life risk.
Life Risk - Where there is a risk to life, the objective is to protect
people loss or injury, then a type L system needs to be installed.
These are divided into:
L5 specific life safety objective to be covered (usually risk
assessment based) or where P1 insurance requirement.
L4 Detection required through escape routes.
L3 L4 Plus detection required in all rooms directly off an escape
route.
False (Unwanted Alarms)

It is thought that about 93% of calls to the fire brigade are as a
result of false actuation of systems.. Common causes of false
alarms are:
Cooking, Steam, Cigarette Smoke, Dust, Insects, Aerosol Cans,
Processes, Hot Work, Malfunction.
False alarms result in business disruption, loss of profit and loss of
credibility. False alarms should be recorded in the log book so that
it can help diagnose and correct any problems later.
Multi sensor detectors are becoming more common to reduce false
alarms. These are where a detector will contain more than one
sensor (heat and smoke) and the signals from that are analysed to
determine where the signals are indicative of a fire.
If there are a large number of false alarms from one premises it
may mean that the level of response is reduced from the fire
service if the issues are not corrected properly.

Alarms - 5

Alarms - 7

Alarms - 4

Alarms - 6
Testing of Fire Alarms:

If a system is connected to the fire brigade or remote manned centre, then
the system should be isolated or termination point notified prior to the
test. All occupants of the building should be notified that a test will take
place.
Daily Inspection
Check that the panel indicates normal operation.
Weekly Inspection
For systems with less than 13 zones: Actuate system from one trigger
device
For systems with more than 13 zones: actuate system from the necessary
number of zones to ensure that the interval between tests does not
exceed 13 weeks.
Record location of point tested in log book.
Visual examination of battery and connections.
Quarterly Inspection (by suitable qualified person)
Ensure any defects previously noted in log book have been dealt with.
Check batteries and connections and where applicable check secondary
batteries.
Test primary batteries.
Check alarm functions and control indicating equipment.
Check siting of all call points and trigger devices.
All further checks specified by manufacturer or installer.
Fire Hazard Detection Situations

Strictly, a fire detector can only operate after a fire has started. However,
other situations may include:
A dangerous environment is developing but ignition has not yet taken
place.
Visible smoke is being produced.
Visible flame is being produced.
Temperature is rising at a dangerous rate.
Temperature has reached a predetermined danger figure.
Heat generated is giving rise to lifting and oscillating thermal air currents.
Fire Detection
A number of different detection methods have and are being used to
detect fire. These include:
Spot Detectors a static detector covering a certain area of a building.
Line Detectors heat detector cables laid in specific areas.
Beam Detectors used to cover large areas (usually an infra red beam).
Sampling Detectors air is sampled from an area through a range of
pipe work back to a detector head.
Scanning Detectors sweeps large areas.
Annual Inspection (by suitable qualified person)

All tests as list in quarterly inspection.
Each detector to be operated (other than those designed to operate once
only).
Visual check of cable and fittings.
Tri-Annual Inspection
Testing in according with the requirements of Regulations for Electrical
Installations published by the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Any defects should be recorded in the log book and actioned.
After a fire (whether automatically detected or not.
A simulated test should be carried out on each trigger device that may
have been affected by the fire.
Visual check of batteries and charger.
Automatic Fire Detectors (AFD)
Automatic Fire Detection Systems are designed to give warning to persons
in a protected building of an unusually rapid rise in temperature, excessive
temperature and thereby reduce the risk of injury to personnel and
damage to property.
The automatic fire detector makes no attempt to hold the fire in check. Its
only function is to give notice of abnormal conditions.
Pre-Fire Situation Detectors

Gas and explosive mixture detectors these detectors are used
extensively in mines, ships, engine rooms, flammable gas and liquid
storage areas or where ventilation is restricted.
Smoke Detectors
These are of two basic types. One employs the flow of electric current
through an ionisation chamber. The second operates on the variation in
light intensity on a photo electric cell.
Detection by Ionisation Chamber In this system, a close circuit
incorporates two ionisation chambers, which act as resisters, one of which
is open to the atmosphere. If smoke or other particles of combustion enter
the open chamber, ions attach themselves to the molecules of the
combustion products and this causes a decrease in the current flow
through this chamber. This alters the voltage balance across the two
chambers and operates the alarm.
A photo electric cell whose electrical properties change when exposed
to light. Several applications include the obstruction of light by smoke and
some of the reflection of light on particles in the smoke cloud to increase
the amount of current generated.
Beam Detectors A transmitter emits an infrared beam to a receiver and

Alarms - 9

Alarms - 11

Alarms - 8

Alarms - 10

Heat Detectors
Suitable in most buildings, have greater resistance to adverse
environmental conditions. Where fires occur in which is evolves rapidly
with little smoke, they may give more rapid fire detection. Heat detectors
need to suit the environment, so if there is likely to be fluctuating
temperatures by design, the type of detector needs to be considered.
Smoke Detectors
These give the earliest warning for most types of fire, in which the early
smouldering stages of the fire evolve considerable quantities of smoke.
Ionisation detectors response most quickly to smoke containing small
particles such as those produced by wood burning fires. They may respond
less to fire involving polymers. Optical detectors respond better to dense
smoke and less to small particles but both types respond sufficiently well
to most fires except those involving alcohol which do not produce smoke
particles.
Optical Beam Type Detectors
These are probably the most suitable type for protecting tall
compartments, cable tunnels, and open areas. They respond to integrated
change in smoke density or temperature over the path of the beam. Not
suitable for areas that use blower heaters or waste heat.
Factors Affecting Choice A detector has to discriminate between a fire
and the normal environment existing within a building. Each type of
detector responds at a different rate to different kinds of fire so a
combination may be necessary, as to take into account processes taking
place and design of the building and contents.
Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

Foam (Class A, B and F Fires)
Foam works in several ways to extinguish a fire although its
primary role is to smother the burning material (stops the oxygen
portion of the fire triangle). These can be used on class A and B
fires but careful selection is required as some foams break down in
contact with solvents.
Types Include:
Chemical foam cylinder is filled with 8% sodium bicarbonate
solution, the inner cylinder contains 13% solution of aluminium
sulphate. When the container is inverted, the two mix together.
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) forms a fire extinguishing
water film on the surface of the burning liquid. Has a cooling action
with a wide extinguishing application than water on solid
combustible materials.
It is important to have a basic understanding of he differing classes of fires

as this will enable you to determine what types of fires are likely and what
equipment will be required.
The old colour coding of extinguishers has now disappeared and replaced
with the new European standard BS EN 3 whereby all new fire
extinguishers have a red body and up to 5% to be coded using the
traditional colours.
Water Class A Fires
The water extinguisher works by cooling the burning material below its
ignition temperature and thus removing the heat element of the fire
triangle. These must be kept upright to avoid discharging the gas rather
than the water. Extinguishers of this type can be inverted once used to
stop water coming out to release the remaining gas. Once used, they will
not operate effectively again until they have been recharged.
As such, the extinguisher should be regarded as a pressure vessel and
maintained according to make instructions.
Types Include:
Gas cartridge type cylinder filled with water and a carbon dioxide
cylinder provides pressure when pierced.
Stored pressure type cylinder is filled with water then pressurised with
Dry Powder (Class A, B and F fires, general purpose, Class B

special purpose powders)
Works by forming a think film of powder on the burning material
(smothering effect removing the oxygen part of the triangle). Powder also
works by chemically interfering with the fire process and acts as a flame
suppressant. These extinguishers are also useful for electrical fires, as
they do not conduct electricity (although may cause damage through the
mess of the powder, and care must be taken when used inside to avoid
the risk of inhaling the powder which can cause respiratory problems as
well as having laxative effects.
Carbon Dioxide (Class A, B and F Fires)
These extinguishers consist of a pressurised cylinder containing liquid
CO2. The gas is discharged by pressing a trigger valve which releases the
carbon dioxide snow that turns into gas on contact with heat. These are
also useful for electrical fires, but they have no cooling effect so re-ignition
can easily occur. The discharge of the gas can be very cold and cause ice
burns so care needs to be taken not to hold the horn directly. CO2 is also
an asphyxiant so care needs to be taken when used in enclosed spaces.
A class C fire should normally be controlled by isolating the gas or
Portable Fire Fighting

Equipment - 1

Equipment - 3

Alarms - 12

Equipment - 2
Limitations of Extinguishers
Siting, Installation and Maintenance
The main limitation with extinguishers is they can only be used on the
classes of fire they are manufactured for. They are also limited by their
range of discharge. Some types will only last for a short period and can
only be used on small fires. The table below gives examples:
Fire Rating
BS5306 Part 8 (Fire extinguishing installations and equipment)
guidance is given on provision of a minimum number of
extinguishers for class A fires:
A minimum of 2 per floor
Total class A ratings should be no less than 0.065 x floor area of
storey (m2) minimum 26A rating.
Single story occupancy with upper floor not greater than 100m2
rating of 13A may be sufficient.
For Class B fires it is more complicated and the workplace should
be assessed as follows:
Each room considered separately.
Where fire risks are more than 20m apart as above.
Fire risks within 20m of another fire risk, assessed as an undivided
or divided group.
Where there is the possibility of a spillage fire, Class B fire rating is
equal to 10 x volume in litres of that spillage.
Nominal Charge of
Extinguisher KGs or Litres
Minimum duration of
discharge (seconds)
Up to and including 3
More than 3 but less or equal

to 6
More than 6 but less or equal

to 10
12
More than 10
15

Generally extinguishers should be sited in a convenient place,
easily accessible. A person should not have to travel more than 30
metres from the site of a fire to the location of an extinguisher.
Extinguishers are normally location in a conspicuous place on an
exit route or signage provided where this is not possible. This
should be in the same location on all floors, or where the
extinguisher is provided for a special risk (e.g. electrical) that it
should be sited near the risk.
Fire Rating
To try and show the limits of extinguishers they have a fire rating
marked on them, although this has only been done for class A and
Class B fires.
The class A rating is achieved by the extinguisher putting out a
specific size of test fire, made up of wood, of a certain length and
quantity.
For the class B rating, the test is similar although the fire consists
of containers of flammable liquids and the rating relates directly to
the volume of fuel.

Maintenance
BS 5306 Part 3 gives the requirements for inspections,
maintenance and testing of portable fire extinguishers and
these are outlined as follows:
Monthly Inspections should be carried out to ensure no
discharge has taken place, no pressure has been lost and no
signs of damage, and in its correct location (this can also be
done weekly).
Annual Inspection and Maintenance a thorough
inspection of the extinguishers carried out by a competent
person who will inspect the extinguisher, any spare
cartridges and replace as necessary.
Test by Discharge need to be tested by discharge at
specific intervals. The interval will be taken from the date of
manufacture of the last discharge date. For extinguishers
this test is every 5 years, except for CO2 extinguishers which
Siting Installation and

Maintenance of
Extinguishers - 1

Maintenance of
Extinguishers - 3
Limitations of Extinguishers

Maintenance of
Extinguishers - 2
Fixed Fire Fighting Installations
An automatic sprinkler system consists of pipes and heat operated valves

(sprinkler heads) by means of which a fire is automatically detected, the
alarm given and water delivered to the seat of the fire.
The sprinkler heads nearest the fire opens and water flows via the valves
and pipework to the fire. The flow of the water through the control valves
also causes the alarm to sound. In a large building, the sprinkler system is
divided into a number of installations each separate from each other.
These have different pipe work systems and the pipes have different
names according to their position in the system:
Range Pipes on which the sprinklers are attached either directly or via
short arms.
Distribution Pipes horizontal pipes feeding the range pipes.
Risers (drops) vertical pipes connecting:
- Installation valves with distribution pipes
Or
- range pipes with distribution pipes.
An installation may be:

Wet Pipe with ALL pipes leading from the water supply through
the various controlling valves and to the sprinkler heads
permanently filled with water under pressure.
Dry Pipe with the pipes above the installation control valves
charged with compressed air under enough pressure to prevent
entry of water. On operation of the sprinkler head, the compressed
air escapes first and the water follows. This is useful if water pipes
may freeze over the winter or in cold rooms etc.
Alternative wet and dry operated as a wet pipe installation in
the summer and dry pipe in the winter.
Tail end alternate or tail end dry basically wet pipe
installations where a portion of the system liable to freeze is dry or
alternative wet and dry.
Pre-Action where a dry pipe system is combined with an
independent system of heat or smoke detectors installed in the
same areas as the sprinklers. Heat and smoke detectors operate
sooner and a pre-action valve opens to allow water to flow into the
sprinkler pipework before the first one operates.
An example of this is shown on the next card. The sizes of pipes vary
according to where they are positioned in the installation and the degree
of hazard the installation is designed to meet. Typical sizes are 20-50 mm
internal bore for range pipes and 32-150mm internal bore for risers and
distribution pipes.
Range
Pipe
Riser
Distribution
Pipe

Sprinkler Heads
A sprinkler head is a heat sensitive valve which opens, releasing
water as a spray when its heat sensitive element reaches a
specific temperature. The orifice of the head (10, 15 or 20mm) is
determined by the risk. The water distribution pattern depends on
the type of detector used.
Distribution Patterns
Conventional these sprinklers produce a spherical discharge
pattern with some of the water being thrown towards the ceiling.
Spray this sprinkler produces a hemispherical discharge below
the sprinkler with little of no water reaching the ceiling.
Sidewall these sprinklers are site close to a wall. They deflect
most of the water away from the wall.
On a wet system sprinkler heads can be upright or pendent on the
pipe work. Dry or alternate systems normally must be upright to
allow for drainage, although some have special valves that prevent
water being trapped and are occasionally used.
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 2
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 4
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 1
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 3

Method of Operation 2 basic types of Sprinkler
Frangible bulb - the sealed glass bulb contains liquid and a small gas
bubble which can accommodate some changes in temperature. Very high
changes however, cause the liquid to expand sufficiently to absorb the
bubble. The result is an increase in pressure which fractures the bulb
allowing water to escape from the head.
Fusible Link heat melts the solder allowing the levers of cantilever
types to move or the strut types to part letting water escape. Solders are
always alloys of tin, lead, cadmium, bismuth and antimony.
Temperature Ratings.
Sprinklers are designed to operate at a set nominal temperature ranging
from 57 to 260 C. The rating of a particular head can be identified by a
colour code.
Control Valves
The water supply into a sprinkler installation is controlled by a set of
installation control valves.
Main stop valve controls water entering the installation.
Alarm valve situated immediately above the main stop valve and designed
to open as soon as a sprinkler head opens and water flows from the
installation.

Alarms
Water motor alarms consist of a turbine wheel connected to a rotary
clapper mounted within a domed gong and is normally situated outside on
a wall. Water flow from the alarm drives the turbine and sounds the gong.
Electric alarms can be used as an auxiliary warning device to the water
motor alarm to indicate on a central control panel which part of the
sprinkler system is operating.
Electric alarms can be actuated by two types of switch:
Pressure switch situated either downstream of the alarm valve or on the
supply to the water motor alarm.
Flow switch situated downstream of the alarm valve.
Water Supplies water supplies for a sprinkler system need to be reliable,
at a suitable pressure and be able to supply a sufficient flow of water for
long enough to fight the largest expected fire. They should also be:
Under the control of he occupier of the building or right of use
guaranteed.
Free from solid matter which might accumulate in pipe work and cause a
blockage.
Pressurised water for a sprinkler may be obtained from one or more of:
Towns mains, gravity tank or elevated private reservoir , pressure tank
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 6
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 8
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 5
Fixed Fire Fighting

Installations - 7
Combustion, stages
Exothermic Reaction one that releases energy in the form of heat.
Endothermic Reaction - one that must absorb energy
Complete Combustion Occurs when all the oxygen in a reaction is
consumed and is the most efficient burning of a fuel (stoichiometric
concentration ideal air to fuel ratio).
Stages of Combustion
Induction this is the early stage of a fire when it is just starting and hear
is starting to build up.
Ignition When the point of ignition is reached and the reaction is self
sustaining.
Growth once ignition occurs, the fire will grow very quickly depending on
the oxygen available.
Steady state When the fire has used all the fuel is used up, and remains
in a steady state.
Decay The final stage of a fire where the fuel is now used up and will
eventually go out.
Ignition Conditions
Flashpoint is the lowest temperature where sufficient vapours are given
off across the surface of the liquid that when an external ignition source is
applied, the vapours will momentarily flash (burn). Substances with a
flashpoint of less than 32oC are known as highly flammable.
Firepoint if the vapours continue to burn, the liquid is said to have
reached its fire point. This is the lowest temperature at which the heat
from combustion of the burning vapour is capable of producing sufficient
vapour for combustion to continue.
Combustion, stages
Flammable or Explosive Limits - for vapours (gases and
dusts) to ignite, they must be within a certain ratio with air
known as flammable or explosive limits.
This is where the fuel to air mixture is at the right limits for
the fuel to burn. Too much fuel in the air and it wont burn
(upper flammable limits). Too little fuel (lower flammable
limits).
Auto Ignition Temperature the lowest temperature at
which the substance will spontaneously ignite.
Vapour Density - is the density of a gas or vapour relative
to air. Gas with a VD of less than one is light than air and
great than one, heavier than air. Lighter gases disperse more
readily than heavier gases.
Combustion, Stages
Combustion, Stages
Safety of People in the Event of a Fire
Emergency Evacuation Procedures

A number of dangers may exist in the event of a fire that may
threaten your employees and any other persons on your premises
or adjacent to them. It is therefore difficult to construct a single
evacuation procedure to adopt for all premises.
Any procedure developed should leave no room for ambiguity in
what to do in different circumstances. Procedures should be brief
and written in simple terms so that they are easily understood.
It is essential that the following issues be considered when
developing the procedure.
Discovering a fire / raising the alarm
Number of people to be evacuated
Location of assembly points.
Fire Wardens
Disabled Persons
Fire Drill Arrangements
Training if Employees.
Your procedures may be:

Single Stage this involved complete evacuation of all occupants
of the building.
Two stage allows for a period of time after the initial alarm for
evacuation of those in the immediate vicinity of the fire for the fire
to be investigated. The alarm is then either cancelled if false, or
continues to a full evacuation.
Phased these are more common in taller buildings where large
numbers of employees are working. Occupants on the floor directly
above and the floor of the fire are evacuated and the remainder
alerted but would remain in the building unless alerted otherwise. If
a full evacuation was then required, then this would be carried out
two floors at a time. In phased evacuations, communication is
essential. A PA system may be used to instruct staff. Fire wardens
and senior fire people need good communication and should be by
means of telephone on each floor (or radios).
Raising the Alarm

What action is necessary when discovering a fire is proportionate to
how fire the fire has developed and the speed it is likely to spread.
Early fires may be easily contained and not require a full
evacuation. Buildings contained hundreds of people may have only
a portion of the building evacuation with an alert to other staff that
a full evacuation may be required. The procedure needs to enable
the fire to be tackled with the least disruption to the business.
All staff should be instructed in the location and use of fire alarm
call points which should b e operated as soon as a fire is
discovered. This should trigger the procedure for then raising the
alarm with the fire brigade.
Number of persons to be Evacuated
In some cases it is relatively easy to determine numbers of people
or people tend to be fairly static. In other premises (such as
department stores, exhibition halls etc), the number on site can
vary throughout the day, time of year etc.
Evacuation procedures should take account of likely numbers
Location of Assembly Points

In an evacuation, people should know where to go and how to get
there. When there, they should receive further instructions and be
counted (i.e. roll call). An assembly point should be far enough
away (although no legal distances are set, rule of thumb is 1.5
times the height of the building), to ensure those gathering at the
assembly point:
Are far enough away to be unaffected by the effects of the fire
(e.g. radiated heat, smoke, flying debris).
Do not impede on access to the building of the emergency
services or be located where emergency services may set up a
control post.
The route to the assembly point should be clearly marked and
easily identifiable to any person that may be in the building.
It may also be necessary to have alternative points for certain
emergencies such as a bomb threat and both assembly areas
should be made aware to all staff and visitors.
Safety of People In The

Event of a Fire - 2

Event of a Fire - 4

Event of a Fire - 1

Event of a Fire - 3
Safety of People In the Event of a Fire
Fire Wardens / Marshals

The number of fire marshals in a building depends on several factors such
as the number of floors, numbers and types of people etc, but they should
be fully trained for the role and responsibilities.
Fire Marshals are a proactive part of the fire prevention strategy by helping
with inspections, ensure escape routes are clear etc. They also help to aid
evacuation in a fire and sweep the building to ensure doors and windows
are closed and people are not in areas like toilets etc.
The advantages of using fire marshals include:
Quickest most efficient way of evacuating buildings.
Buildings can be split into pre-defined areas ensuring all areas are
covered.
Fire and Rescue services can gain quick access to the building to rescue
people and minimise damage.
People are used to evacuate people and therefore unusual behaviour can
be dealt with.
Fire marshals identify problems during and not after the evacuation.
Disadvantages include:
Relies on staff volunteering for the role of a fire warden / marshal
Normally in operation during normal working hours.
Evacuation Plans
It is important to consider disabled persons such as the PEEP
and generically the GEEP (as mentioned in means of escape)
and the use of evacuation chairs or refuge points.
Fire Drills
To ensure everyone understands the evacuation process
practice drills should be undertaken. This should be done at
least twice a year. Two and half minutes is a reasonable time
to aim for complete evacuation although this can vary.
People can become familiar with their escape routes and
may not always know where alternative routes are so it is
important to carry out scenarios such as blocking an escape
route to ensure people can find an alternative route.
Recording any difference in evacuation times may then
identify any additional training needs people may have.
Fire Marshal Systems

These include:
Fixed system in this system, people are fairly static at their place
of work. Fire marshals can be given a fixed area of the building to
search, so in an evacuation, they would sweep their designated
area prior to evacuation.
Assembly System where persons are not regularly in one place.
On activation of the alarm, fire marshals gather at a predetermined
position, then sent to check specific areas. This can also be used
where the number of fire marshals vary.
Points System the number of fire marshals may vary and may be
moving around the building constantly. There will be fire marshal
points that contain a route map to be searched. On alarm, fire
marshals go to the nearest point collect the route map and search
the area. However it may be that too many marshals are at the
same point and none at others so good communications is
essential in this instance.
Staff Training
There is a duty on employees to ensure staff are provided with adequate
health & safety training and this would include fire awareness training. At
a basic level, fire training should cover matters including:
What to do on discovering a fire.
Actions on hearing the alarm.
Summoning of the fire brigade.
Location of assembly points.
Perception and Behaviour of people in a fire
When planning for fire safety, it is essential to take into account the way
people behave when faced with a fire situation. The perception that people
will immediately evacuate is not always true. People may:
Stand around and watch the fire.
Ignore the fire and carry on with their business.
May try and use fire fighting equipment despite not being trained.
It is only when the fire encroaches in the individuals psychological safety
zone that they start to react to a situation, but any delay may result in
being overcome by heat or smoke.

Event of a Fire - 6

Event of a Fire - 8

Event of a Fire - 5

Event of a Fire - 7
Safety of People In the Event of a Fire
Perception of Behaviour contd

It is worth noting that how people behave will depend on the
people involved. For example, if people are trained frequently on
what to do in the event of a fire then research shows they are
more likely to react rationally, react to the alarm, help others and
evacuate safely.
Some people have a strong tendency to protect others (such as
parents, children, friends) and may place themselves at risk to
protect them. This happened during a fire in a leisure complex
when parents became separated from their children and went away
from the assembly points to find them. If people were reassured a
good procedure was in place, they would know the children would
have been taken care of and reunited with their parents once the
danger had passed.
Regardless of what legislation, standard or best practices are in
effect, we still have to rely on human behaviour for procedures to
be successful.
Peoples behaviour is influenced by both psychological and
physiological factors which include their perception, attitude,
motivation, and past experiences.
Visual Warnings
Strobe lights used as a back up to any audible warnings, used in
buildings where people have hearing difficulties, or where there is
high background noise. Can be a disadvantage if it is where people
are not aware of it flashing, involved in high concentration work, or
light is not intense enough.
Information boards large modern buildings (shopping centres)
may have their system connected to large screens where electronic
messages may give visual directions to people to enable
evacuation, but it needs to be mentioned that language and
reading barriers may reduce effectiveness.
Audible Warnings
Bells / Sirens Most common type of warning, which needs to be
heard throughout the building. Relies on people reacting to it and
fire wardens beginning their duties.
Verbal Messages used in places of public assembly, Pa system
uses a pre-recorded message. This may get ignored or its
importance not recognised.
Siren and Verbal There may be a mix of both systems which may
reinforce the message to evacuate.

Principles of Sensory Perception
When considering how to ensure people are aware of a potentially
dangerous fire situation we need to take into account how people
notice a fire. These include:
Visible flames or sparks
The smell of smoke or seeing smoke.
Excessive heat from a fire
If people waited for these, it may already be too late to escape.
Other signals may be:
Flashing lights
Bells or other audible signs
The sudden movement of people towards exits.
Loud unrecognisable noises.
For warning signs to be effective, they need to be easily
recognisable and acted upon by the people at risk.
Warnings
When confronted with either a audible, visual, verbal or combination,
people usually do any number of things which include:
Ignore the warning
Wait to see if it is real
Go and investigate and fight the fire
Raise the alarm and instruct others
Flee from the situation
Fail to respond and freeze.
It is a common misconception that people panic in fire, but in the early
stages, it is more likely that stress levels may increase which affects
decision making processes.
Decision Making Process
In an emergency it is essential information is given to people in a concise
and easy to understand way. Where verbal communication is given it is
best to tell people what to do rather than not to do, and give the
instructions in the order they should be followed such as please leave the
building and go to your assembly point. Use simple words and point in the
direction you want people to go, so it is obvious which way even if they are
not taking in the verbal instruction.

Event of a Fire - 10


Event of a Fire - 9

Fire Risk Assessment

A fire risk assessment is a logical organised way to examine your
premises and any activities that are carried out within to determine
whether a fire could start and level of harm to persons or property.
Hazard something that has the potential to cause harm
Risk the likelihood of harm occurring from the hazard.
The objectives of a risk assessment are threefold:
The assessor needs to identify all of the factors that may cause
harm to property, people and environment during or as a
consequence of fire.
Determine the likelihood of the harm actually occurring.
Allow the responsible person to plan, implement and monitor the
measures both preventative and protective to ensure the risks are
as low as reasonably possible.
There is no universal method for carrying out the inspection,
however there are guidance books from the RRFSO, British
Standards and PAS 79.
The legal requirement is that the risk assessments are suitable and
sufficient and should: identify and prioritise the risks, level of
details should be proportionate to the risks, remain valid for a
reasonable amount of time.

Evaluate, remove, reduce and protect from risk.
Once hazards and people at risk have been identified, evaluation of
the risks needs to be undertaken.
We should look at likelihood of fuels being present, being ignited by
an ignition source and additional sources of oxygen that may
increase speed and spread of fire. Any large spaces that may not
be fire stopped may also affect a fire.
Qualitative and Quantitative methods may be used to rate risk,
although in most cases it is the former. It is normally based on a set
of pre-determined questions (a fire risk assessment form) and
allows the assessor to make a judgement on the risks being high,
normal or low.
Once an evaluation of risk has been undertaken, the business will
need to consider ways of removing, reducing and protecting
buildings and people using the principles of prevention which is
specified in Part 3, Schedule 1 of the RRFSO.
Identify the Hazards This should include

Sources of Ignition smokers materials, hot work, naked flames, cooking,
heaters, electrical equipment, lighting, static electricity, arson, friction and
impact sparks from work processes.
Sources of Fuel flammable liquids, gases, wood, paper, soft furnishings,
metals, waste materials, dust, chemicals, foams, plastics.
Sources of Oxygen natural ventilation, air conditioning systems, oxygen
cylinders, piped oxygen, oxidising chemicals.
Structural features building structure, wall and ceiling linings, open
voids nd any breeches in fire protection.
It is important to identify hazards that are considered significant and an
assessor may ignore trivial ones.
Identify the people at risk
Consideration needs to be given to the types of people who may be at
risk, their location, work activities and any disabilities that may present an
increased risk. These would include:
Employees
Visitors / Members of the Public
Contractors
Fire Fighters
Reduce Sources of Ignition

Removing unnecessary sources of ignition, replacing with safer
alternatives, using heat producing equipment in accordance with
manufacturers instructions and is properly maintained.
Installing machinery and equipment designed to minimise risk of
fire and explosions.
Replacing naked flame and radiant heaters with convector heaters
of central heating.
Ensuring all fuses and circuit breakers are of the correct ratings
and suitable for purpose.
Ensuring sources of ignition do not arise from overheated or
overloaded equipment.
Operate a permit to work system for items like hot work such as
welding or flame cutting.
Operate a safe smoking policy.
Prohibit matches or lighters in areas of high risk.
Ensure any equipment when not in use, is left in a safe condition.
Taking precautions again the risk of arson.
Fire Risk Assessment - 2
Fire Risk Assessment 4

Reduce Sources of Fuel
Removing flammable materials and substances, or reducing them
to minimum required.
Replacing with less flammable alternatives.
Ensuring flammable materials are handled, transported, stored
and used properly.
Ensuring adequate separation distances between flammable
materials.
Storing flammable materials in fire resistant stores, and keeping
minimum quantities in fire resisting cabinets in workroom.
Replacing or repairing upholstery.
Ensuring flammable waste materials are not allowed to build up
and removed on a regular basis.
Taking action to avoid storage areas that are vulnerable to arson.
Ensuring good housekeeping.
Improving fire resistance in the construction of the workplace.

Means of Escape
How long will it take for all the occupants to escape to a place of
safety?
Is it a reasonable length of time or too long?
Are there enough exits and are they in the right place?
Are the type and size of exits suitable and sufficient for the
number of people likely to need to use them (e.g. wheelchair
users)?
In the event of a fire, could all exit be affected or a route remain
available?
Are all escape routes easily identifiable, free from obstruction and
adequately illuminated?
Have staff been trained in using the means of escape?
Fire Detection and Fire Warning
Can existing means of detection discover a fire quickly enough to
raise an alarm?
Can means of giving warnings be cleared heard and understood
through the premises when initiated from a single point?
If the fire detection system is electronically powered, does it have
a back up power supply?
Are employees aware of the system and will they know how to
operate and respond to it?
Reduce Sources of Oxygen

Close all doors, windows and other openings not required for
ventilation.
Shutting down ventilation systems which are not essential to the
function of the business.
Not storing oxidising materials near or with any heat source or
flammable materials.
Controlling the use of oxygen cylinders making sure they dont
leak or used to sweeten the atmosphere and their location
adequately ventilated.
Reduce Unsatisfactory Structural Features
Removing, covering or treating large areas of flammable wall and
ceiling linings to reduce fire spread.
Ensure good fire stopping techniques are used for openings.
Good fire resisting structural materials are used and maintained.
Means of Fighting Fire

You need to have enough fire-fighting equipment in place for your
employees to use either of the below without exposure to unnecessary
risk?
Aid means of escape
To extinguish a fire in its early stage.
Are extinguishers suitable for the purpose and of sufficient capacity?
Are there sufficient numbers sited throughout the building?
Are the right types located close to the fire hazards and can users gain
access to them without exposing themselves to risk?
Are the locations of the extinguishers obvious or does their position need
indicating?
Have the people been given adequate training and instruction?
Fire Procedures and Training
Do you have an emergency plan?
Does the plan take into account all reasonably foreseeable risks?
Are your employees familiar with the plan, trained and involved in testing
it?
Is the emergency plan available to all who need to be aware of it?
Are the procedures to be followed clearly indicated throughout the
It is also important that the assessor also considers measures

already in place and recommend improvements where appropriate
Fire Risk Assessment 8

Maintenance and Testing
Do you regularly check all fire doors and escape routes and
associated lighting and signs?
Do you regularly check your fire fighting equipment?
Do you regularly check your fire detection and alarm equipment?
Are those who test and maintain the equipment properly trained to
do so?
Record your Significant Findings
Where you employ five or more employees or if an alterations
notice is in force you must record the significant findings of your
risk assessment in writing or some other retrievable means.
A number of forms and systems have been designed for recording
but they should all follow the same methodology.
Significant Hazards
People / Groups
who are at risk
Existing controls
and risks not
adequately
controlled.
Further action
needed, by when,
and who?
Risk Assessment in Respect of Dangerous Substances

Dangerous substances within a workplace may give rise to the risk
of fire or explosion. It is important that a risk assessment has been
carried out to identify risks that may be present.
Dangerous Substances can include those defined as:
Extremely flammable
Highly flammable
Explosive
Oxidisers
In determining level of risk, assessors should consider flashpoints,
firepoint an auto ignition temperatures, upper and lower explosive
limits and where it is being used, in what form, how it is stored and
any existing control measures.
Having established the risks, new or further control measures
should be considered and these could include for small quantities
in the workplace when being stored and used.
Risk Assessment in Respect of Dangerous Substances

Reviewing / Revising the assessment
Sooner or later you may introduce changes in your
workplace which have an effect on your fire risks and
precautions such as changes to the work processes,
furniture, plant, machinery, substances, buildings or the
number of people. Any of these could lead to new hazards or
increased risk. So if there is a significant change, you will
need to review your risk assessment.
It is not necessary to amend the RA for trivial changes, but if
a job introduces significant new hazards, these will need to
be considered. In any case, the assessment should be
reviewed regularly to ensure measures are still effective.
Storage
Ventilation is there plenty of fresh air to allow the safe dispersal of any
vapours given off by accidental spillage, release or leakage. It is possible
to store them outside of the workroom in open air?If stored inside, the
area should be well ventilated either be natural or mechanical means.
Permanent means such as using air bricks could be installed both at high
and low levels. Five air changes per hour are normally enough to ensure
vapour levels are kept low.
Ignition sources of ignition should be excluded from the area wherever
substances are to be stored. If using mechanical ventilation, the electrical
safety of the system should be considered.
Containment containers should be suitable for purpose and could
include metal construction fitted with self closing lids to prevent spillage
and vapour escape. Containers should be clearly labelled with information
on the contents. Empty containers should be treated as full unless purged.
Exchange can a less flammable material be used? Or eliminate storage
and have a just in time delivery system?
Separation are dangerous substances stored away from work area and
other processes by physical means such as partitioning. If not possible,
can flameproof storage be used that is secure and bunded? Incompatible
Risk Assessment in Respect

of Dangerous Substances 2

Environmental Impact of Fire
Use and Handling

Where substances are used it is important to ensure adequate
precautions are in place. Some measures such as elimination /
control of ignition sources will be needed, but additional measures
should include.
Dispensing and Decanting this should be done in a way to
minimise spillages and releases of the liquids. If possible, an
enclosed transfer system should be used or containers designed for
the task used. Small containers are available which incorporate the
following design features:
Heavy duty plastic or metal in construction
Apertures fitted with self closing lids with flame arrestors.
Hoses and other attachments for dispensing into small openings.
Carrying handles for larger capacity containers.
It may also be necessary to maximise the use of funnels and spill
trays to decant from sources of ignition.
Fire has a number of consequences and one area that many

organisations tend to overlook is the effect of fire on the
surrounding environment. Whilst the RRFSO does not specifically
mention the environment, it does require the responsible person to
mitigate the effects of fire. It would also be prudent to consider
any applicable environmental or health and safety legislation when
dealing with this.
The Water Resources Act 1991 deals with the extraction of water
from boreholes and rivers for which a license would normally be
required except where the water is required for fire fighting
purposes.
Control of Major Accidents Hazards (COMAH) Regulations 2005
which exists to ensure businesses take all measures necessary to
prevent major accidents and to limit the effects and consequences
on people and the environment.
The responsible person may be held liable to prosecution if robust
fire prevention measures are not in place.
Where hot work is carried out on vessels (i.e. pipe work or petrol
tanks that may contain residues of flammable liquids), this should
only be done under a PTW system and no work should commence
until the vessel has been cleaned.
Smoking should be prohibited in areas where dangerous
substances are used and signage posted accordingly.
Housekeeping good standards of housekeeping should be
maintained throughout areas and this will involve:
Placing contaminated rags in suitable receptacles (e.g. metal
lidded bins that are emptied regularly).
Dealing with spillages promptly using appropriate spill kits
(absorbent mats or granules).
Containment of larger spills
Ensuring spillages do not enter drainage systems.
Personal Protective Equipment the use of flame proof overalls to
protect the employee from splashes and spillages and possible
subsequent ignition.
Employees should be made aware through information, instruction
Sources of Pollution
Fires in businesses can have a significant effect on the environment
which threaten both water supplies and general public health.
Some products are more obvious such as oils and chemicals, but
some are less obvious and may only be a pollutant to the
environment such as food or drink products. It is possible these
products may escape from site into the water system such as:
Direct run off into watercourses or direct into the ground.
Into foul drainage, possible affecting stability of sewage treatment
works.
Atmospheric pollution through vapour clouds.
Surface water drainage systems.
Toxic Gases
When various products such as plastics, foams etc are burnt,
depending on their make up numerous toxic gases may be
expected (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide
etc). All these gases are toxic, some in small quantities and can be
harmful to the environment as well as people.

Environmental Impact of
Fire - 2

Fire - 1

Smoke
Smoke and its by-products can be extremely corrosive and is
capable of causing long term damage to buildings and materials
unless cleaned thoroughly after a fire. Consideration needs to be
given to possible air pollution and gaseous product and companies
should be able to identify:
What toxic chemicals are likely to be released
The prevailing wind conditions
The vicinity of neighbouring properties
Communication methods to the local communities
Type of smoke potentially and likely environmental damage.
It is usual for the Environment Agency to work with the fire and
rescue service if environmental impact is likely. The EA will normally
give advice to the fire service unless there is strong operational
safety reasons for not take the advice, the fire service would use
the advice given.
Reducing the Impact of Environmental Damage

Environmental damage may be short and long term in terms of
groundwater contamination which can persist for tens or hundreds
of years. The resulting legal proceedings and clean up can be very
costly. Not all industries would give rise to pollution even though
hazardous materials may be present.
The reason for this being that for there to be a risk of pollution,
three components have to be present:
A SOURCE
e.g.
contaminate
d fire water
run off, toxic
smoke
A PATHWAY
e.g. surface
drains,
permeable
ground
Environmental Damage
For companies to determine whether they are at risk they should carry out
an environmental risk assessment and should consider:
Possible materials and chemicals on site that may act as pollutants.
Location of surface water drains.
Natural / man made water courses including rivers, streams, lakes and
ponds.
Existing containment strategies by bunding and tanks.
Shut off valves and ease of location to negate damage.
Interceptors to protect sewers in the event of foam use for fire fighting.
Secondary containment measures i.e. reservoirs for contaminated fire
water.
If risks have been identified, companies need to consider reducing the risk
to an acceptable level, and the hierarchy below can be used:
Prevention prevent the outbreak of fire by segregating / controlling
sources of ignition for combustible materials, good stock control.
Detection Installing and maintaining automatic detection and protection
systems.
Containment Installing and maintaining facilities for the containment of
firewater for example, storage lagoons, chambers, isolation tanks and shut
off valves.
Mitigation planning in conjunction with local fire and rescue service for
suitable fire fighting strategies including, recycling firewater where non
hazardous, controlled burns where little or no water is used.
A RECEPTOR
e.g. a river,
groundwater,
people
If any one of the above components are missing then there can be
no environmental risk.
Fire water run off

Water is the most widely used medium for fires as it is cheap, plentiful and
effective. It also has the advantage that is it non hazardous. Most water run off
generated in a fire is not usually an problem.
If hazardous chemicals are involved, foam may be used instead, although water
may still be used for its cooling effect. It can cause large amounts of pollution and
there are ways this can be controlled:
Bunding it is sensible to store chemicals in bunded areas where the capacity of
the bund would take the entire inventory of chemicals, plus the foam or water used
to extinguish them. Particular attention should be paid to the ability of the bund
walls to withstand the pressure from the contained liquids under fire conditions.
Lagoons and tanks permanent provision for the containment of large quantities of
fire water run off, typically several thousand cubic metres and generally are remote
and serve several storage areas.
Sacrificial areas might be natural depressions or specially created areas designed
to have inherent containment provision.
Separators provide a specified design performance for removal of non-miscible
hydrocarbons from the water allow discharge.
Booms can be used to provide total containment or used as flotation devices to
contain lighter non-water-miscible hydrocarbons.
Drain seals to cover or block a drain as an emergency containment system.
Fire - 4
Fire - 6
Fire - 3
Fire - 5

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The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 came

into effect on 1st October 2006 and reforms several

Part 2 Fire Safety Duties

Principles of Prevention to be applied (specified in Part 3,

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Elimination of the risks from dangerous substances.

Emergency Routes and Exits

Licensed nuclear sites, ships, construction sites which are managed

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Part 4 Offences and Appeals

Successful Fire Safety Management

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Successful Fire Safety

Regulatory Reform (Fire

Successful Fire Safety

Fire Investigation Procedure

False alarms may also be investigated to determine the cause of

Reporting and Recording of Fire Incidents

Fire Investigation Procedure - Continued

Element 2 Principles of Fire and Explosion

The process of gathering evidence will include:

Fire Investigation Procedure

Principles of Fire and

Fire Investigation Procedure

Reporting and Recording of

Fire Growth Fire and Heat Spread

Factors influencing fire growth

Construction Materials - Steel

Fire Growth Fire and Heat

Construction Materials Steel

Factors Influencing Fire

The contents of a building

The Principles of Explosion and Explosive Combustion

The contents of a Building

The Principles of Explosion

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions

Boiling Liquid Expanding

Causes and Prevention and Fire

Fires caused by Electrical Appliances

Fire Risks in Construction and Maintenance Work

Welding and Cutting Operations

Fires caused by Electrical

Welding and Cutting

Causes and Prevention of

Fire Risks in Construction

Motives for Arson

A study in the 90s of reasons why arson is committed, proposed for a

Are you at Risk?

Are you at Risk?

Motives for Arson

Are you at Risk?

Other Fire Prevention and Precaution Measures

Examples of reducing the risk are:

Daily checks a simple check of the premises at the start of

Prevention of Electrical Fires

Safe Systems of Work

Ensure PPM of all equipment and circuits is carried out.

The frequency of inspectional may be weekly, monthly etc