Energy, Processes

and Cycles
Basic Concepts of
Thermodynamics Part 2

Graciano Emmanuelito E. Dela Cruz III

School of Mechanical Engineering
Mapua Institute of Technology

Some Commonly Used

Conversions:

Pressure:
1 atm = 14.696 psia = 101.325 kPa
1 atm = 29.921 in Hg = 760 mmHg
1 bar = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2
1 bar = 14.5 psi
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.22 psi

Force:
1 kgf = 1 kilopond, kp
1 kgf = 9.80665 N
1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf

Power:
1 kW = 3413 Btu/hr
1 kW = 3600 kJ/hr
1 HP = 0.746 kW = 2545 Btu/hr
1 PS (Metric HP) = 0.7355 kW
1 HP = 33000 ft-lb/min

Mass:
1 short ton (US) = 2000 lbs
1 long ton (British)
= 2240 lbs
1 Metric ton(tonne) = 2204.6 lbs =
1000 kg
1 kg = 2.2046 lbs

Energy:
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ
1 Btu = 778.16 ft-lb
1 kCal = 4.186 kJ
1 Btu/lb = 2.326 kJ/kg

Length:
1 kilometer = 3280.8 ft
1 mile = 5280 ft
1 yard = 3 ft
1 meter = 3.2808 ft

Volume:
1 (US) gallon = 3.78543 liters
1 ft3 = 7.481 gal (US)
1 liter = 1000 cm3
1 m3 = 1000 liters
15.85 gal/min = 1 liter/s
15850 gal/min = 1 m3/s
264.177 gal = 1 m3
1 petroleum barrel (unrefined) = 42 gal (barrel)
1 petroleum barrel (refined) = 55 gal (drum)

Mechanical Work and

Power

Mechanical Work is defined as the

product of a force F and a
displacement D when both are
measured in the same direction
(collinear).
W=F x D
Power is the time rate at which
work is done on or by a system.

Kinetic and Potential

energies
Kinetic energy is defined as the
work in moving the system a
distance.
Acceleration work is the work done
on the system to change its velocity.
KE = mV2 = (m/gc)V2
Where gc is the gravitational
constant

The curse of gc

Kinetic and Potential

energies

Potential energy of a system

mass depends on its position in
the gravitational field.
Gravitational work is the work done
against gravity to change the
elevation of a system
PE =mgz, where z is the elevation

Shaft work

Shaft work, sometimes called

rotational mechanical work, is
evaluated in terms of the external
torque transmitted by a rotating
shaft.
Torque is the turning moment exerted
by a tangential force acting at a
distance from the axis of rotation.

Electrical work

Electrical work is
the mechanical
work required to
move the charge
in the
electrostatic field
(for example, an
electric circuit).

Internal energy

The sum of the energies of all the

molecules in a system, energies
that appear several complex
forms, is the internal energy, U.
U = mcvT , where Cv is a the
specific heat at constant volume.

Flow energy

Flow energy is a special form of work

that is significant for a moving
stream.
Often called flow work, it is work done
in pushing a fluid across a boundary,
usually into or out of a system.
Wf = pV, where p is the pressure and V is
the volume of the system.

Heat

Heat, Q, is energy in transit (on

the move) from one body or
system to another solely because
of a temperature difference
between the systems.

Enthalpy, H

The sum of the internal energy and

the flow work is known as the
enthalpy.
Also known as heat content.
H = U + pV
H = mcpT , where Cp is a the
specific heat at constant pressure.

Entropy, S

Degree of randomness or disorder.

Thermodynamics
processes

Constant pressure process or isobaric or

isopiestic process
Constant volume process or isometric or
isochoric process
Constant temperature process or isothermal
process
Constant entropy process or isentropic
process or adiabatic process (heat is zero)
Constant enthalpy process or isenthalpic
process
Polytropic process

Thermodynamic cycles

A combination of two or more

processes which, when
completed, returns the system to
its initial state is known as a
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE. In other
words, the system goes through a
number of states and finally
reaches the original state again.

Factors of a
thermodynamic cycle

Working fluid
Hot body / hot reservoir
Heat engine or heat pump
Cold body / heat sink

Thermodynamic cycles

Carnot Cycle
Internal combustion engines
Otto cycle
Diesel cycle

Stirling and Ericsson cycles

Gas turbine cycle (Brayton cycle)
Vapor power systems
Rankine cycle

Reheat, regenerative, reheat-regen, cogeneration

Refrigeration cycle
Reversed Carnot cycle / vapor compression cycle

Carnot cycle

Carnot cycle is the most efficient

cycle
Sadi Carnot

Tlow
1
Thigh

Nicolas Leonard Sadi

Carnot

1796-1832
French physicist
and military
engineer who, in
his 1824
Reflections on the
Motive Power of
Fire, gave the first
successful
theoretical account
of heat engines.

Internal combustion
engines

Air Standard Otto

cycle

A theoretical
cycle of interest
in analyzing the
behavior of
reciprocating
spark ignition
engines
Nicholas August
Otto (1832-1891)

Air Standard Diesel

Cycle

Basis for the

Compression
Ignition engine or
the Diesel Engine
Rudolf Karl
Christian Diesel
(1858-1913)

The 1st Diesel engine

4 stroke and 2 stroke

Brayton cycle

Continuous
combustion
process
Gas turbine cycle
George Brayton
(1830-1892)

Vapor Power Systems

Electrical Power available in

homes and industry is developed
in an electrical generator at a
steam power plant.
This model for a steam power
cycle is called the Rankine cycle.

William John Macquorn

Rankine

Scottish engineer
and physicist.
Professor of
engineering at
the Univ. of
Glasgow.

You should know

your cycle!