Chapter 1
Matter
anything that has mass and
takes up space
pure substances
compounds
and elements
mixtures two or
more pure
substances
mixed in the
same
containernot
bonded
SHAPE
Solid
definite shape
indefinite shape
VOLUME
definite volume
definite volume
indefinite volume
Physical Properties
physical property a characteristic that
can be observed or measured without
changing the identity of the substance
melting point
mass
state of matter
color
Physical Changes
physical change a change in a
substance that does not involve a change
in the identity of the substance
breaking
cutting
boiling
dissolving
tearing
Chemical Properties
chemical property a characteristic that
can be observed or measured with a
change in the identity of the substance
flammability
Chemical Changes
chemical change a change in a
substance that does involve a change in
the identity of the substance
color change
gas released
(often with an odor)
energy change
(light, heat, )
precipitate
formed
Precipitate
aqueous
dissolved
in water
Homogeneous Mixtures
the same throughouteach
sample contains the same
ratio of ingredients
Heterogeneous Mixtures
different throughouteach
sample contains a different
ratio of ingredients
Separation of Mixtures
density
evaporation
filtration
chromatography
Separation of elemental Fe
magnetism
Distillation Apparatus
Homogeneous Mixture,
Heterogeneous Mixture or
Pure Substance?
Chapter 2
Measurements and
Calculations
Pages 28-65
Prefix
Symbol
Exponential
tera
1012
giga
109
mega
106
kilo
103
hecto
102
deka
D or da
101
-----
-----
100
deci
10-1
centi
10-2
milli
10-3
micro
10-6
nano
pico
10-12
10-9
Quantity
Quantity
Symbol
Unit Name
Unit
abbreviation
Length
meter
Mass
kilogram
kg
Time
second
Temperature
kelvin
Amount of a Substance
mole
mol
Electric Current
ampere
Luminous Intensity
Iv
candela
cd
Size of Units
1L=1dm3
1cm3 = 1mL
Density
Mass
Density
M
D=
V
Volume
M
D=
V
853 g
D=
5.00 cm x 4.00 cm x 15.5 cm
g
D = 2.75
3
cm
M
D=
V
g
M
3.26
=
3
3
cm
0.351 cm
g
3
0.351
cm
3.26
3
cm
M = 1.14 g
M
D=
V
g
76.2 g
13.6
=
mL
V
76.2 g
V=
g
13.6
mL
V = 5.60 mL
Density water
1.00 g
g
=
= 1.00
1.00 mL
mL
Significant Figures
digit or figure 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
significant digit or figure a digit that helps
you to understand the details of the entire
number given to you
Significant Figures
5005 m
0.0045 L
4.500 g
100 cm3
100. cm3
0.04020 g
Scientific Notation
Move the decimal until one non-zero digit
appears to the left of the decimal.
Be sure the power of the ten reflects the
direction of that move.
Keep the same number of significant
figures in the scientific notation as your
original.
Accuracy
(getting all
measurements
right)
Precision
(getting all
measurements
the same)
Percent Error
Percentage error =
Valueexperimental - Valueaccepted
Valueaccepted
x 100%
17.7 g - 21.2 g
%E =
x 100%
21.2 g
%E = - 17%
3.6 x 106 ms
23.18 miles/hr
Chapter 3: Atoms
The Building Blocks of Matter
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that
retains the chemical properties of that element.
2Na + Cl2
39.34g + 60.66g
? + ?
Example
John Dalton
proposed this
in 1803.
The Atom
Atom - the smallest particle of an element
that retains the chemical properties of that
element.
CARBON
Subatomic Particles
Protons- positively charged particles found in
the nucleus of an atom.
Neutrons- neutral particles found in the nucleus
of an atom.
Electrons- negatively charged particles found in
the electron cloud.
Alpha Particles
Alpha () particles are Helium-4 nuclei.
This means they are two protons and two
neutrons (with no electrons).
Thus, they are positive.
4
2
He
+2
Gold Foil
Experiment
Atomic Number
atomic number (Z) - the number of
protons in the nucleus of each atom of a
given element. (Henry Moseley)
The number of p+ identifies the element.
Atomic Number increases from left to right
on the periodic table.
Electrons
Mass Number
mass number (A)- the number of p + & no in
the nucleus of an atom.
# of neutrons = mass number atomic number
Why arent
electrons included
when determining
the mass number
of the atom?
Isotopes
isotope- two or more atoms having the same
atomic number (same #p+) , but different
mass numbers (due to different #n o).
Isotope Notation
Nuclear Notation
Hyphen Notation
Uses the elements symbol followed by a hyphen & the mass
number.
C-12
35
Cl-1
Br-80
32
S-2
N-14
56
Fe+3
4
2
4
2
He
+2
4
2
He
Alpha Decay
239
94
Pu
234
92
parent
235
92
4
2
U + He
230
90
4
2
Th + He
daughter
0
1
0
1
Beta Decay
6
2
He Li +
24
11
6
3
0
-1
Na Mg +
parent
24
12
0
-1
daughter
beta
decay
210
84
Po He +
14
6
4
2
14
7
206
82
Pb
N+
0
-1
226
88
Ra
The Mole
mole (mol)- SI Unit for
the amount of a
substance that
contains as many
particles as there are
atoms in exactly 12g
of carbon-12.
A unit of counting, like
the dozen.
Avogadros Number
Avogadros Number - the number of particles
in exactly one mole of a pure substance.
Atomic Mass
atomic mass - the mass of one mole of an
atom
Atomic mass is expressed in atomic mass
units (amu) or (u) or g/mol.
Can be found on the periodic table.
All atomic masses are based on the
atomic mass of carbon-12 being 12 amu.
Molar Mass
molar mass - the mass of one
mole of a pure substance.
Molar mass is written in units
of amu or g/mol.
Atomic Mass
Molar Mass
Na
Ag
C
O
22.99 g/mol
22.99 g/mol
107.87 g/mol
107.87 g/mol
12.01 g/mol
12.01 g/mol
16.00 g/mol
16.00 g/mol
Molar Mass
18.02 g/mol
180.18 g/mol
NaCl
58.44 g/mol
Cl2
70.90 g/mol
(NH4)3PO4
149.12 g/mol
CuSO45H2O
249.72 g/mol
Cheer
I say grams, you say molar mass.
grams molar mass
grams molar mass
Grams to Moles
Converting grams to moles: divide by molar mass.
1. How many moles of Ca are in 5.00g of Ca?
1 mol Ca
5.00g Ca x
= 0.125 mol Ca
40.08 g Ca
Moles to Grams
Converting from moles to grams: multiply by molar mass
1. What is the mass in grams of 2.25 moles of Fe?
55.85 g Fe
2.25 mol Fe x
= 126 g Fe
1 mole Fe
Types of Particles
Atoms C, Cu, He
Molecules O2, C12H22O11, CO2 (all
nonmetals in the formula)
Formula units NaCl, CaCl2, Mg(NO3)2
(includes a metal in the formula)
Particles to Moles
Converting particles to moles: divide by
Avogadro's Number.
1. How many moles of Pb are in 1.50 X
1025 atoms of Pb?
2.49 x 101 moles Pb
Moles to Particles
Converting moles to atoms: multiply by
Avogadro's Number.
1. How many molecules of NO are in 0.87
moles of NO?
23
5.2 x 10 molecules NO
1 mol NaF
41.99 g NaF
x
23
6.02 x 10 f.un. NaF
1 mol NaF
= 550. g NaF
Chapter 4
Arrangement of
Electrons in Atoms
The emission of light is fundamentally related to the
behavior of electrons.
Forms of Energy
Mechanical energy
Chemical energy
Solar energy
Radiant or Electromagnetic energy
Electrical energy
Nuclear energy
Thermal energy
Sound energy
Magnetic energy
Types of Energy
kinetic energy the energy that objects
have because they are moving
KE energy of motion
potential energy the energy that is
available for doing work at some later
time
PE energy of position
Energy Units
What units are used for energy?
joule = J (SI unit)
calorie = cal (non SI unit)
Calorie = Cal (food calorie =
1000 cal)
1.00 cal = 4.184 J
Example: How many calories of energy is 1067 joules?
1.00 calorie
1067 J x
255. calories
4.184 J
1
Hz = or s
s
Gamma rays
X-rays
Ultraviolet
Visible
Infrared
Microwaves
Radio waves
High energy, E
High frequency,
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
High wavelength,
c =
c = speed of light in m/s
= wavelength in m
= frequency in 1/s
E h
E = energy in J
h = constant in J.s
= frequency in 1/s or Hz
-34
J s
c =
E = h
12
hc
14. E =
m
(6.626 x 10 J s)(3.00 x 10
)
s
E=
-11
7.89 x 10 m
E = 2.52 x 10-15J
-34
Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric effect- the emission of electrons
from a metal when light shines on the metal.
The photoelectric effect does not occur when
the lights frequency is below a certain amount
regardless of the intensity of the light.
Spectroscopy
Spectroscope used to
separate light into a spectrum
by wavelength so it can be
examined.
Line-Emission Spectrum
produced when an electron
jumps from a higher energy
level to a lower energy level.
Acts as an atomic fingerprint.
Discovery of the
Line-Emission Spectrum
Hydrogen atoms were excited by passing
a high-voltage current through hydrogen
gas causing the gas to glow a lavender
color.
When viewed with a spectroscope
(diffraction grating or prism) the lavender
light separated into four narrow lines of
different color.
carbon
Chapter 4 Part II
Arrangement of
Electrons in Atoms
The emission of light is fundamentally related to the
behavior of electrons.
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg stated that it is
impossible to simultaneously determine both the
position and velocity of an electron or any other
particle. This became known as the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle.
Quantum theory was more widely accepted after
this proposal.
Energy Levels
Quantum numbers describe the location
of electrons in an atom.
Energy Sublevels
No more
Bohr model
Orbitals
orbital a 3-D region in space within an
energy level in which the electron is most
likely to be found (90% of the time).
Summary of orbitals
energy
levelssublevels
n = 1 1s
n = 2 2s, 2p
n = 3 3s, 3p, 3d
n = 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
n = 5 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f
n = 6 6s, 6p, 6d
n = 7 7s, 7p
Orbital
Hunds Rule
within
equal
energy
orbitals, the
e- are
distributed
to have the
maxiumum
unpaired epossible
4s
3s
2s
1s
Valence Eletrons
valence electrons electrons in the highest
energy level
Br: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
1st E level
2nd E level
3rd E level
4th E level
Chapter 5:
Periodic Trends
Who told the
elements where to
go?
MENDELEEV!
(Father of the periodic table)
Metals
Make up most of the periodic table.
Ductile- can be drawn into wire
Malleable- can be hammered into thin sheets.
Lustrous- shiny
Good Conductors of heat & electricity
Located to the left of the step ladder on the
periodic table.
Nonmetals
Brittle-break when hammered.
Poor conductors of heat & electricity.
Lack luster
Located to the right of the step ladder on the
periodic table.
Halogens -Group 17
Reactivity Trends
What is the most reactive metal on the
periodic table? Explain.
Circle the most reactive nonmetal in each
row:
1. Te
Po S
2. Br
I
Cl
Atomic Radii
Atomic Radius- the distance between the nuclei of
two identical atoms that are bonded together.
Measure from nucleus to nucleus and divide by two.
The larger the atomic radius the larger the atom.
c. S
Sr
Sb
Ionic Radii
Cation- a positive ion formed from the loss of
electrons. Ex. Ca+2
Metals typically form cations.
Cations are smaller than their parent atoms.
Example: Na > Na+
Ionic Radii
Anion- a negative ion formed from the gain of
electrons. Ex. Cl-1
Nonmetals typically form anions.
Anions are larger than their parent atoms.
Example: Cl-1 > Cl
Cl
b. Na
Na+1
c. N
N-3
d. Fe+2
Fe+3
e. C+4
C-4
Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy- the energy required to remove an
electron from an atom.
Nonmetals have higher ionization energies than
metals.
The lower the ionization energy of an atom the easier
it is to remove an electron.
b. As
c. F
Li
Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity- energy change that occurs when an
electron is acquired by a neutral atom.
Nonmetals have a more negative (LOWER) electron
affinity than metals.
Metals typically have a more positive (HIGHER)
electron affinity than nonmetals.
Noble gases have an electron affinity between metals
& nonmetals.
Ar
b. O
Ne
Ca
c. Cu
Ar
Kr
Electronegativity
Electronegativity- measure of the ability of an atom in a
chemical compound to attract electrons.
The higher the electronegativity the greater the
attraction for electrons.
The electronegativity scale was determined by Linus
Pauling.
The electronegativity scale ranges from 0 to 4.
Since some noble gases do not form compounds
they have electronegativity values of 0.
Used to determine the polarity of an bond.
Electronegativity Trend
Electronegativity increases as you travel up &
right on the periodic table!
Electronegativity Trends
1. Circle the atom with the highest electronegativity.
a. F
Sn
b. Li
Chemical Bonding
Chapter 6
Pages 174-213
Ionic Bonding
ionic bond when electrons are taken by one
atom from another atom
metal and a nonmetal
NaCl
cation and anion
(The charges are hidden to make a neutral compound.)
Ex: NaCl
Ions
cations (+)
anions (-)
monatomic ions ions formed from one
atom
Examples: Na+ or O-2
polyatomic ions - ions formed from two or
more atoms bonded together
Examples: NH4+ or SO4-2
Ionic Compounds
solid at room temperature
high melting points (thus are usually solid at RT)
formula unit represents the lowest ratio of ions
that combine to form a neutral compound
most are crystalline solids
when dissolved in water, the ionic compounds
will break up into ions (dissociate)
the solutions of ionic compounds will conduct
electricity (electrolytes)
Covalent Bonding
covalent bond when electrons are shared
between two atoms
two nonmetals
No ions formed! (no electrons are taken)
There is
another type
of bond, not
purely
covalent and
not purely
ionic.
Nonpolar
Pure
Covalent
Polar
Covalent
Ionic
Electronegativity
electronegativity a measure of the ability
of an atom in a chemical compound to
attract electrons from another atom in the
compound
The difference in electronegativity values for
two atoms will indicate whether the two
atoms form an ionic bond or a polar or
nonpolar covalent bond.
Electronegativity Differences
VSEPR Theory
Valence
Shell
Electron
Pair
Repulsion
Theory
LINEAR
180o
sp hybridization
2 Regions of Electron Density
2 Bonds
bonded pair
of electrons
bonded pair
of electrons
TRIGONAL PLANAR
120o
sp2 hybridization
3 Regions of Electron Density
3 Bonds
3 bonded pairs of
electrons
TETRAHEDRAL
109.5o
sp3 hybridization
4 Regions of Electron Density
4 Bonds
4 bonded pairs of
electrons
TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL
107o
sp3 hybridization
4 Regions of Electron Density
3 Bonds & 1 Lone Pair
1 lone pair
of electrons
3 bonded pairs of
electrons
BENT
105o
sp3 hybridization
4 Regions of Electron Density
2 Bonds & 2 Lone Pairs
TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL
120o & 90o
5 Regions of Electron Density
5 Bonds
OCTAHEDRAL
90o
6 Regions of Electron Density
6 Bonds
SF6
SQUARE PLANAR
90o
6 Regions of Electron Density
4 Bonds & 2 Lone Pairs
ICl4-
Hybridization
Regions of e- Density
2
3
4
Hybridization
sp
sp2
sp3
Cl
Cl has a higher
electronegativity
Dipole
dipole partial negative or partial positive
charge formed during unequal sharing of
electrons (in polar bonds only)
+ The direction of a dipole is from the
dipoles positive pole to its negative pole.
The dipole is
drawn over the
HCl molecule.
The arrow
points towards
the more
electronegative
element, Cl.
The electrons
are not shared
equally within
the HCl
molecule.
Do we usually
draw the
electron
clouds with the
Lewis
NO
structures?
Dipole
Example: PCl3 has three
dipoles
These
threebecause
dipoles are
there are three polar
bonds.
drawn
beside the bonds,
What is the more
electronegative
element, P or Cl?
So, how would the
dipoles be drawn?
Cl
Cl
Answers
Did you make CO2
linear?
Did you make NH3
trigonal pyramidal?
Did you show the
dipoles pointing to the
more electronegative
element?
An overall
dipole is
created.
An overall
dipole is
created.
Polarity of a Molecule
Polarity of a molecule depends upon two
things
the polarity of the bonds
the shape of the molecule
carbon monoxide, CO
Is the bond polar?
YES
ammonia, NH3
Are the bonds polar?
YES
YESthe molecule is
not symmetrical and
does have a partial
positive end and a
partial negative
end. You can draw
Is the molecule polar?
on overall dipole.
methane, CH4
Are the bonds polar?
YES
NOthe molecule is
symmetrical and
does NOT have a
partial positive end
and a partial
negative end. (The
center and the
outside does not
count as an end.)
Chapter 7 Part I
Formula Writing and Naming
May I please have a glass of
Ionic compounds
ones with and without Roman numerals
Molecular/Covalent compounds
use prefixes for these (mon-, di-, tri-, tetra-, )
Acids
Chapter 7 Part II
Math with Formulas
Percent Composition
What is the percent composition of oxygen
in carbon dioxide?
Percent composition is determined by mass. You need to know the
total mass of the element for the bottom of your fraction and the mass
of the part of the compound in question for the top of the fraction.
multiplied by 2 because there
are 2 oxygen in the formula
2 x 16.00 g
%O =
x 100.% = 72.7% O
44.01 g
molar mass of carbon dioxide
Empirical Formulas
What is the empirical formula for glucose,
C6H12O6?
An empirical formula is just the lowest ratio of the molecular
formula. It is not representative of the real molecule, but it just
shows the ratio of atoms in that molecule.
C6H6O2