Log-Normal Shadowing

The average large scale path loss model does not

capture the randomness of the obstacles present
in between the transmitter and receiver. The
received signal power at a given distance will
typically experience random variation as the
wireless channel will fluctuate depending on the
number of obstacles, changes in reflecting surfaces
and scattering objects. This random behavior of the
environment is usually modeled by log-normal
shadowing.

Log-Normal Shadowing
2

Hence in the models for the path loss effects due to

shadowing can be combined to give the variation in
the received signal power with distance as

PL(d) dB PL(d) X
d
PL(d) dB PL(d 0 ) 10 log X
d 0

(1.16)

(1.17)

PL(d) is given in Eq. (1.15) X

where
and
is a zero

mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in

dB) with standard deviation (in dB)
x2
2
1
(1.18)
p X (x)
e 2
2

Log-Normal Shadowing
3

The received power with path loss and

shadowing
(1.19)

Pr (d )[dBm] Pt [dBm]-PL(d)[dB]

d )random variable with normal

Since PL(d)PL
is(a
distribution in dB and mean
,therefore
(d )
Pr(d) is also a random variable with normal
distribution in dB. Let
be the
(1.20)

(
d
)

PL
(d)
distance dependentt mean of Pr(d).

Log-Normal Shadowing
4

The probability that the received signal is

above a particular threshold can be

obtained as
1
Pr(P (d ) )
e dx

(x (d))2
2

1
2

y2
2

dy

(d)

(d)

(d)
Pr(Pr (d ) ) Q

(1.21)

Log-Normal Shadowing
5

Similarly the probability that the received

signal is below a particular threshold can be
obtained as
(d)
Pr(Pr (d ) ) Q

(d)
1 Q
(1.22)

This probability is also known as outage

probability

Nyquist Pulse Shaping for

Linear Modulations

When rectangular pulses are passed through a

bandlimited channel, the pulses will spread in time,
and the pulse for each symbol will smear into the
time intervals of succeeding symbols. This causes
intersymbol interference (ISI) and leads to an
increased probability of the receiver making an error
in detecting a symbol.
Raised-cosine pulse is used to eliminate ISI while
keeping the transmission bandwidth low.
At the correct sampling instant, the ISI is zero.
Typically, the raised cosine frequency response is
split between the transmitter and the receiver
meaning the transmitter and receiver both have
square-root raised cosine spectrum

Nyquist Pulse Shaping for

Linear Modulations

Intersymbol Interference Examples

*http://www.fiberoptics4sale.com/wordpress/fiber-optics-fortelecommunicationa-complete-and-quick-tutorial-part-1/

Nyquist Pulse Shaping for

Linear Modulations

T,

| f | W

0,

otherwise

X(f )

X ( f ) GT ( f )C ( f )GR ( f )

X(f)

Nyquist condition for zero ISI is

(2.28)

Where GT(f), GR(f) and C(f) denotes the

frequency response of transmitting,

2W

X ( f ) T

channel filters.

(2.27)

W=1/2 f
T
receivingx(t)
and
x(t-T)
-W=1/2T

T=1/2W is the theoretically minimum value

of T for which transmission with zero ISI can take
place.
The corresponding impulse response is x(t)=sinc(t/T). In
other words, a Channel with Bandwidth W= 1/2T, can
support a maximum Symbol rate of Rs=1/T symbols per

Nyquist Pulse Shaping for

Linear Modulations

One commonly used pulse spectrum that has the

desirable spectral properties is the raised cosine
spectrum.

0| f |(1 )/2T

T,

X(f )

(2.29)

T 1cos T f

2

0,

2T

, 1 | f |1
2T
2T
| f | 1
2T

where 01 is called the roll-off factor, the

bandwidth occupied by the signal beyond
W=1/2T=Rs/2 (also called minimum Nyquist
bandwidth) is called excess bandwidth and is
usually expressed as percentage of W .

Nyquist Pulse Shaping for

Linear Modulations

10

Hence the total Bandwidth occupied by the

signal is
(2.30)
B= W+ W = 0.5(1+)Rs
If =0.5, the excess bandwidth is 50%
whereas if =1, the excess bandwidth is
100%.
cos( t / T )
(2.31)
x
(
t
)

sinc(t/
T)
2
2
2
The impulse response
1 4 for
t / TX(f) is

X(f)
Bandwidth of Raised Cosine filter
(Baseband):

Rs
2B
(1 ), Rs
2
1

(2.32)

Bandwidth of RaisedBCosine filter

B Rs (1 ), Rs
(2.33)
(Passband):

When =0, Rs=2B (RC pulse reduces to

ideal
Nyquist filter)
When =1, Rs=B
As the excess bandwidth increases ( 0 )
means faster convergence and reduction
in errors due to mismatch in sampling
instants. However, it reduces the
effective symbol rate of transmission.
11

x(t)

Power Efficient Modulations

12

Non-linear modulations are power efficient.

In non-linear modulation, the amplitude of the
transmitted signal is constant, regardless of the
variation in the modulating digital signal Constant
envelope
The phase of the transmitted signal is usually
continuous.
Use power efficient Class C amplifier.
May occupy a larger bandwidth (than linear
modulations)

MFSK M-aryFrequency Shift Keying

MSK Minimum Shift Keying
It has a modulation index of 0.5 to allow the minimum
frequency spacing that allows two FSK signals to be

Minimum Shift Keying

13

Features of MSK

It has constant envelope.

There is phase continuity in the RF carrier at
the bit transition instants.
It is a FSK signal with binary signaling
frequencies of fc+1/4T and fc-1/4T. Hence the
frequency deviation is equal to
1/4T+1/4T=1/2T.
Since the minimum frequency spacing is 1/2T
hence the two FSK signals are coherently
orthogonal.

cos( t/ 2 T)

I Output
1001
Data
Data
Splitte
In
1100011
r
1
1011
Delay,
Tb
Q Output
sin( t/ 2 T)

14

(a)
cos( t/ 2 T)

sin( t/ 2 T)

(c)

(b)
(e)
MSK
Output

9
0

(d)

 t
cos(2 f ct )
2t
t
aQ (t ) sin sin(2 f c t )
2t

s(t ) aI (t ) cos

s(t ) cos (2 f c t ) aI (t ) aQ (t ) k
2t

(2.33)
where k is 0 or depending
on whether aI(t) is 1 or -1

15

MSK has lower sidelobes

In MSK, 99% of the power is within a bandwidth B =
1.2/T
In QPSK, 99% of the power is within a bandwidth B =
8/T
MSK has wider main lobe bandwidth.
MSK is less bandwidth efficient in terms of 1st null

17

Gaussian Pulse shaping

filter
Effective when used with power efficient modulation
schemes (e.g. MSK).
Unlike Nyquist filters which have zero-crossings at
adjacent symbol peaks and a truncated transfer
function, the Gaussian filter has a smooth transfer
function with no zero-crossings. Impulse Response
The transfer function
(2.34)
0.1

0.09
0.08

BT=2

Amplitude

0.07
0.06

BT=1

0.05

BT=0.5

0.04

B= Bandwidth
The impulse response
(2.35)
0.03

BT=0.3

0.02
0.01

0
0

50

100

150

Samples (Time)

200

250

18

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying

(GMSK)

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

Has constant envelope hence has excellent power

efficiency (as nonlinear Class C power amplifiers
can be used)
Has good spectral efficiency (as side-lobes of MSK
signal are reduced by passing through Gaussian
low pass filter)
Drawback is that it introduces ISI, however the
degradation due to ISI is not severe if the 3dB
bandwidth- bit duration product (BT) of the filter is

 As the BT product decreases, the sidelobes falls off rapidly, hence it

consumes less bandwidth
Reducing BT increases the irreducible error floor due to ISI.
For mobile communication, as long as the GMSK irreducible error rate is less
than
that produced
2 Eb by the mobile channel, there is no penalty in using GMSK.
Q error
e ,GMSK Bit
P
GMSK
(2.30)
N rate:

Magnitude Response (dB)

where is constant related to BT, i.e. = 0.68

for BT= 00.25

BT=2

Magnitude (dB)

-20

BT=1

-40

BT=0.5

-60

BT=0.3

-80
-100
-120
-140
0

19

0.1

0.2
0.3
0.4

Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)

0.5

0.6

Occupied RF Bandwidth as a fraction of Rb

GMSK spectrum becomes more compact with decreasing BT value but

degradation due to
ISI increases.
For BT=0.5887, BER degradation is about 0.14 dB compared to the case
without ISI.
20

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying

(GMSK)

21

Example :Data rate = 270 kbps, BT = 0.25,

find the 3-dB bandwidth, 90% power RF
bandwidth. T 1 1 3.7 sec
Rb

BBaseband

270 103

0.25
0.25

67.56kHz
6
T
3.7 10

Thus the 3dB bandwidth is 67.567 kHz.

To determine 90% power bandwidth at pass-band,
we use the table to find that 0.57R is the desired
value. Thus, the occupied RF spectrum for a 90%
power bandwidth is given by

M-QAM
22

Coherent M-ary QAM

For M-ary QAM the signal can be described
(2.31)
sm (t ) Amc cos(w c t ) Ams sin(w c t ), m 1, 2,...., M
as
Where we have assumed a rectangular
pulse shaping window and Amc and Ams are
the sets of amplitude levels obtained by
mapping2k-bit
Emin sequences into
2 Emin signal
Ams
bi
Amc
ai
amplitudes.
Ts
T

M-QAM
23

Functional diagram of QAM Modulator

Amc

Binary
Data

Pulse
Shaping
Filter
Cos wct
90de
g.
Phase
Shift

Serial to
Parallel
converter

Ams

Pulse
Shaping
Filter

Osc

Sin wct

Tx
QAM
Signal

M-QAM
24

A constellation for 16 QAM

Scatter plot

3
2

Quadrature

1
0
-1
-2
-3
-2

In-Phase

M-QAM
25

Probability of Error for QAM

The probability of symbol error for the Mary QAM (when k is even) is

PM 1 (1 Ps )

(2.32)

where M=2k, k is even,

1
PS 2 1
Q
M

3 Es

M 1 N 0

(2.33)

and Es is the average energy per symbol.

M-QAM
26

Probability of symbol Error for QAM for

any k1 can be tightly upper-bounded
as

PS 4Q

3k Eb

( M 1) N 0

where Eb is the energy per bit.

(2.34)

M-QAM
27

Ps, Probability of Symbol Error

10

-1

10

-2

10

M=4
M=16
M=32
M=64
M=256

-3

10

-4

10

-5

10

-6

10

-5

***MATLAB DEMO

Eb/N0

10

15

20

Modulation performance in
Slow Flat fading channels

28

For slow flat fading channel the received signal

can be given as
(2.35)
r (t ) (t ) exp[- j (t )]s(t ) n(t ) 0 t T
AWGN
Gain of the
channel

Phase shift of
the channel

Transmitted
signal

The BER in a slow flat fading case can be obtained

by averaging the error in AWGN channels over the

fading probability density

function
Pe Pe ( X ) p ( X )dX

(2.36)

Pe(X) is BER at the specific value of signal-noise-ratio X,

X=2Eb/No

29

Modulation performance in
Slow Flat fading channels
For Rayleigh fading channel, the fading envelope
has Rayleigh distribution, so the fading power 2
has exponential distribution,
1
X hence
p( X )

Eb 2
where N
o

exp

X 0

(2.37)

= Average SNR where the average 2

channel gain
is usually assumed to be 1.
Example: For BPSK, the bit error probability for a
particular value of , will
be
2 E
P X Q
Q 2X
(2.38)

N
2

Hence the probability of error of BPSK in slow

fading channel
1
1

X
Pe Pe ( X ) p( X )dX Q
0

2X

exp dX 2 1

(2.39)

30

Modulation performance in
Slow Flat fading channels
For Rayleigh fading channel, the fading envelope
has Rayleigh distribution, so the fading power 2
has exponential distribution,
1
X hence
p( X )

Eb 2
where N
o

exp

X 0

(2.37)

= Average SNR where the average 2

channel gain
is usually assumed to be 1.
Example: For BPSK, the bit error probability for a
particular value of , will
be
2 E
P X Q
Q 2X
(2.38)

N
2

Hence the probability of error of BPSK in slow

fading channel
1
1

X
Pe Pe ( X ) p( X )dX Q
0

2X

exp dX 2 1

(2.39)

31

BER of common digital

modulations in Rayleigh Fading
channel

For coherent BPSK:

Pe, BPSK

1
1

2
1
4

(2.40)

For coherent BFSK:

Pe , DBPSK

1

1
1

2
2
2

(2.41)

Differential BPSK:

Pe, DPSK

Noncoherent Orthogonal

GMSK:Pe , GMSK

1
4

1
1

2(1 ) 2

(2.42)

1
1

(2.43)

Pe , NCBFSK:
BFSK

where 0.68, for BT=0.25,

0.85, for BT=.

Please Note : =E /N
b
o

(2.44)

BER

Performance
of digital modulation over Rayeligh Fading channel
0
10
BPSK
QPSK
16QAM
Fading
DBPSK
-2
CFSK
10
NCFSK

10

-4

10

-6

AWGN

10

15
Eb/No (dB)

20
1

Pe and

For Fading channel, there is a linear relationship between BER
SNR
SNR, i.e.

Pe AWGN
exp( SNR
)
whereas for non-fading
channel
BER and SNR has exponential
relationship.

33

Probability of error for Binary

DPSK and FSK (non-coherent)
Detection

The BER for AWGN channel for DPSK and noncoherent FSK modulation is1 given
by,
cX
PAWGN e
2

where c=1 (DPSK) and c=0.5 (FSK)

1
and X= 2Eb/No where X is the instantaneous 2value
and
1
X
p ( X ) exp
X 0
For Rayleigh
fading
the pdf of X is given
channel,

as
where is average signal to noise ratio, i.e. E(X)=
=Eb/No

Probability of error for Binary DPSK and

FSK (non-coherent) Detection
34

PFading PAWGN p ( X )dX

0

1 - cX 1 - X
e
e dX
2

2 0

- X c

1
dX
2(1 c)

If c=1 (DPSK) and c=1/2(FSK) we have

DPSK Pe, DPSK

1
1

2(1 ) 2

FSK Pe , NFSK

1
1

Example
35

If the average SNR for a Rayleigh faded

DPSK signal is 30dB what is the probability
of error at the receiver? Also find the
probability of error in AWGN channel if the
instantaneous SNR is 30dB.
Solution: Average SNR, =30dB
Pe , DPSK

1
1

4.995 10-4
2(1 ) 2(1 1000)

Example
36

For BFSK (non-coherent) modulation(assume ideal

Nyquist Filtering), to achieve a BER of 10 -3, how
much additional signal power (in dB) is required in
a Rayleigh fading environment as compared to the
1
AWGN channel?
PNFSK , AWGN e 0.5 X
2
1 AWGN Channel
Solution:
For
10 e
, ln(2 10 ) 0.5 X
2
Hence, X 12.42 10.95dB
1
PNFSK , Rayleigh
2
For Rayleigh faded Channel
3

0.5 X

998 29.9913dB

Hence, additional power required, = 29.99-

37

Prove that if is Rayleigh distributed, then 2 is

exponentially distributed.
Let y= 2, hence by transformation theorem of single
random variables, the pdf of y will be
d
pY ( y ) p A ( )
dy

y 2

where p A ( ) 2 exp 2 0

Therefore
2

1
pY ( y ) 2 exp 2

2 2

y 2

2
1

exp 2 fory 0
2 2
2

SinceE[ A2 ] 2 2 2

, hence

2
pY ( y )
exp fory 0
2
2

Diversity Techniques
for Fading Channels

38

39

The problem with Rayleigh

Fading
For a Rayleigh fading channel the instantaneous
SNR, X=2Eb/No has an
1
X
exponential distribution
given
by (Eq. 2.36)
p ( X ) exp
X 0

where is the average SNR of the Rayleigh

fading channel.
Let be a desired SNR threshold at which
Pr(X ) reception
acceptable signal
p(X) 1 e is achieved. Then
the outage probability will be

In particular, if = then Pr(SNR< )=1-e-

Why Diversity ?
40

Example:
Suppose the binary antipodal signals (BPSK) s(t) are
transmitted over a fading channel and the received
signal is
(3.1)
r (t ) as (t ) n(t ), 0 t T
Where n(t) is AWGN. The channel gain a is specified by
(3.2)
the pdf
p(a)=0.1(a)+0.9(a-2)
Let us determine the BER
employs a filter
2which
a 2 Eb

matched to s(t). Pe (a) Q

N0

The probability of error for fixed value of a is given by

Why Diversity ?
41

The average probability of error is

Pe 0.1Q 0 0.9Q

8 Eb
0.05 0.9Q
N0

b
8E

N 0

Pe 0.05 ,
Hence, if we assume Ethat
N
as error floor)
b

(3.3)

(known

(3.4)
Now if we transmit this signal over two statistically
independent fading channels with gain a1 and a2
where
p(ak)=0.1(ak)+0.9(ak-2),
k=1,2

The noises of two channels are statistically

independent. The demodulator employs a matched

Why Diversity ?
42

The probability of error for fixed values of a1 and

2( a a ) E
(3.5)
a2 is
P(a , a ) Q

2
1

N0

In this case we have four possible values for the pair

(a1,a2), namely, (0,0), (0,2), (2,0) and (2,2) with
probabilities,
8 E0.81.

Eb
8E
16
0.01,
0.09,
b
(3.6)
Pe 0.010.09,
Q 0 0.09
Q

0.09
Q

0.81
Q

N0
N 0
N0

Hence the average BER is

Eb

No

Pe 0.005

Hence, if
,
(error floor), which is
smaller than the earlier case.

Why Diversity ?
43

Communication over a flat fading channel has poor

1

performance due to significant probability that

channel
SNR

is in a deep fade
2

SNR vs BER, BPSK, Diff erent Channel Models

10

Pe, PSK

-2

Bit Error Rate

10

1
4 SNR

-4

10

Flat Fading Theoretical

-6

10

Flat Fading Simulation

AWGN Simulation
AWGN Theoretical

-8

10

10

20

30

SNR (dB)

40

50

Diversity is a way to protect against deep fades by

providing more than one resolvable signal paths that
fade independently.

44

Motivation of Diversity
Techniques
The solution: create multiple channels or branches
that have uncorrelated fading

Fading of two highly correlated

channels

Fading of two uncorrelated

channels

45

Motivation of Diversity
Techniques
When channel is in a deep fade, many data
symbols are lost
If receiver has several replicas of the same signal
obtained from independent fading channels, the
chance
p Pr( X of
)signal recovery increases.
If
then having M independent replicas
of the same transmitted signal result in
Pr(all M signals having SNR< at the same
Number of
time)=pM<<p
1
uncorrelated
(3.7)
Pe M
branches
if M is big or p is small
As a rough
rule: of error in
Average SNR
Probability
slow flat fading

Macroscopic diversity
46

This is used to combat large-scale or long-term fading

(shadowing) where significant signal variations occur at only
large distances.

Macroscopic diversity is a powerful technique to improve

coverage, link quality and capacity in cellular systems.

The basic idea of macroscopic diversity scheme is to enable

a mobile station to have multiple BTS (located at 2 or more
different adjacent cells) linked to it at the same time. By
constantly monitoring the signal level at the mobile, the
base-station with the strongest signal (as measured by the
mobile) is connected to the mobile subscriber

Microscopic Diversity
47

Used to combat small scale fading which

causes deep fades.
It exploits the rapidly changing signal
amplitude due to Rayleigh fading distribution,
for ex. If two receiver antennas are separated
by a fraction of meter one may receive null
and other may receive a strong signal.

Popular types of diversity

48

Space
Uses several receive antennas spaced sufficiently far apart
so that the individual branches are sufficiently uncorrelated.
Time
The transmission of same signal at different times (the time
difference should be more than coherence time of the
channel).
Frequency
The transmission of same signal on different frequencies
(the frequency difference should be more than coherence
bandwidth of the channel).
Polarization
The transmission of same signal with two different
polarization. Only two different branches are available.
Path

Diversity

Advantages

Disadvantages

Space

Easy to design.
Large antenna spacing
No extra power or band-width required (at least in BTS)
required.
Hardware more expensive
Can be exploited even when the
fading
channel
is
neither
frequency
selective nor time selective.
Number of diversity
branches (L) selectable.

Time

Number of diversity branches

(L) selectable.
Implicit in coding /interleaving.
No extra physical space
Required.

Requires
additional
bandwidth.
Effective only when the
Fading is time-selective.

Frequency

Number of diversity
branches (L) selectable.
No extra physical space
Required.

L times more power and

bandwidth necessary.
Effective only when
the fading is frequency
Selective.

Polarization

No extra space
No extra bandwidth

Number of diversity
branches (L) = 2

Path

No extra space
No extra bandwidth
No extra power

Diversity gain depends on

channel delay spread
profile

49

Diversity Combining
Techniques

50

After obtaining the various diversity branches

(through previous discussions), the problem
now is how to combine the diversity branches
to get a better signal quality. Given below are
three popular techniques.
Selection
The received signal with the highest SNR is
selected.
Equal Gain
Signal copies are combined with equal gain.
Maximal ratio
Signal copies are weighted and combined

Orthogonal Frequency Division

Multiplexing

51

Multicarrier Communication
52

The basic idea of multicarrier modulation is to

divide the transmitted bitstream into many
different substreams (primarily orthogonal
substreams) and send these over many
different subchannels.
The number of subchannels are chosen such
that each subchannel has a bandwidth less
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel,
so the subchannels experience relatively flat
fading.
Subchannels in the multicarrier modulation
need not be contiguous, so a large continuous
block of spectrum is not needed for high-rate

Multicarrier Communication
53

Consider a linearly modulated single-carrier system:

Parameters: Data Rate, R and Bandwidth, B Hz
Channel Bandwidth: Bc Hz.

Assume: B> Bc Hz , Hence the signal experiences

Frequency
selective Fading.
X(f)

H(f)

R(f)

fc

fc

fc

B
Hz

Bc
Hz

Bc
Hz

Multicarrier Communication
54

Now consider a multi-carrier system with N subcarriers,

i.e. we divide a wideband system into N linearly
modulated subsystems in parallel, each with
subchannel bandwidth, BN=B/N and data rate* RN=R/N.
With large value of N, BN=B/N Bc , hence flat fading
at each channel.
X(f) T
R(f)
H(f)
Similarly, TNR/N
=1/B
bps NTm where
m is the delay spread of
the channel R/N bps

R bps
B Hz

fc
R/N bps

B/N
Hz

fc
Bc
Hz

* Here we assume ideal Nyquist filtering with roll of factor, =0, hence
R =1/T =B

fc
B/N
Hz

Multicarrier Communication
55

Consider a multicarrier system with a total

passband bandwidth of 1 MHz. Suppose the
system operates in a city with channel delay
spread Tm=20s. How many subchannels are
needed to obtain approximately flat fading in each
subchannel?
Solution:
To ensure flat fading on each subchannel we need
(From eq. 1.40)
TN =10Tm Tm hence TN =200s
Given Bandwidth, 1MHz, hence Ts=1/MHz= 1s
Thus N= TN /Ts =200 subchannels are needed for

Multicarrier Communication
56

Another Solution:
The channel coherence bandwidth is
Bc=1/Tm=50kHz

To ensure flat fading on each subchannel, we

take BN=B/N=0.1BcBc.
Thus N=B/0.1Bc=1MHz/5kHz=200 subchannels
are needed to ensure flat fading

Conventional Multicarrier
Transmitter

Conventional Multicarrier Receiver

Multicarrier Communication
58

Problem with conventional multicarrier

systems
Spectrally inefficient
Require a bank of filter with sharp cut-off.

X(f)

f0

f1
Guard
Band

f2

fN-1

59

Multicarrier modulation with

overlapping subchannels
X(f)

f0
BN Hz

f2

f1
Guard Band (
Hz)

fN-1

Total Bandwidth, B=N(BN+ )Hz

X(f)

Total Bandwidth, BN(f1f0)=NBN/2

f0

f1

f2

..

Overlapping

fN-2

fN-1

Multicarrier modulation with

overlapping subchannels

60

Compare the required bandwidth of a

multicarrier system with overlapping
subchannels versus non-overlapping
subchannels using the following
parameters (assume no guard band for
non-overlapping subchannels)
BN=5kHz and N=128

Solution:
For non-overlapping subchannels,
B=N(BN)=640Hz
For overlapping subchannels,

W=2R

W=2R
N=1

-R

-R

W=2R

W=3R/
2
N=2
-R -R/2

-3R/4-R/4 R/4 3R/4

W=4R/
3

-2R/3

W=2R

N=3

2R/3

Overlapping

-R/2 R

-R

Non-Overlapping

TDMA, CDMA, and OFDM

Wireless Systems
62

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

GSM,
EDGE
Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications
(DECT)
Personal digital cellular (PDC)
Packet radio Multiple access (PRMA)

Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple

Access (DS-CDMA)
IS-95 (A,B, HDR,1x,3x,...),
CDMA-2000 (3GPP2),
IIT
Madras
IEEE Symp./ IISc -2001
W-CDMA (3GPP)

OFDM
63

Orthogonal Frequency Division

Multiplexing (OFDM)

Wireless

IEEE 802.11a, g, j, n (Wi-Fi) Wireless LANs

IEEE 802.15.3a Ultra Wideband (UWB)
IEEE 802.16d, e (WiMAX), WiBro, and HiperMANWireless MANs
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA)
DVB (Digital Video Broadcast) terrestrial TV systems: DVB-T, DVB-H,
T-DMB and ISDB-T
DAB (Digital Audio Broadcast) systems: EUREKA 147, Digital
RadioMondiale
Flash-OFDM cellular systems
3GPP UMTS & 3GPP LTE (Long-Term Evolution), and downlink 4G LTE

Wireline

ADSL and VDSL broadband access via POTS copper wiring

OFDM

magnitude

FFT

IFFT

channel
carrier
subchannel

frequency

OFDM
Frequencydomain

Timedomain
1

Subcarrierf1

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.8

0.4

0.4

-0.2

0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

10

1
1
0
0
0.5
-0.2
0
0-0.5
-0.4

-0.5
-1
-0.6
-1

0.4

-0.2

-1
-0.8
-2-1.5
-0.8-0.8
-1.5
-1
-0.8

0.2
0
-0.2

-0.8
-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

-0.4
-10

-5

10

0.6

0.6

0.2
0

-0.4-0.4
-0.4

-0.2-0.2
-0.2

0 0
0

0.20.2
0.2

0.40.4
0.4

0.60.6
0.6

0.80.8
0.8

1.21.2

0.80.8

0.8

0.4

-0.6-0.6
-0.6

1 1

1.2

0.8

0.60.6

0.4

-0.2

0.40.4

0.2

-0.4

-0.6

0.20.2

-0.2

-0.8
-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

-0.4
-10

-5

10

1.2

0.8

0 0
-0.2-0.2

0.6

-0.4-0.4
-10-10

0.8

0.4

0.6

0.2
0

0.4

-0.2

0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.2

-0.8
-1
-0.8

0.6

0.2

-0.6

Subcarrierf 4

0.8

0.4

-1
-0.8

-5

0.6

-0.4

Subcarrierf 3

-0.4
-10

1.2

0.8

-1
-0.8

0.6
2 1
2
0.4
1.5
0.20.5

-0.2

-0.8

Subcarrierf 2

1.5
0.8
2.5
3

-0.6

-1
-0.8

4 2
1
3

0.6

0.2

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

-0.4
-10

-5

10

-5 -5

0 0

5 5

10
10 10

OFDM
66

Orthogonality of sub-channels for OFDM

Orthogonality of subcarriers in OFDM is
required as the spectrum of the subcarriers
are overlapping with each other.
The motivation is to select the subcarrier
spacing such that =+nf
Where f and TN=1/NTs , Ts is the input
symbol rate and TN is the OFDM symbol
duration.
If the subcarriers are selected as per above
conditions, they are orthogonal to each other.

Proof: The received signal over a period of T N

in absence of channel and noise effects is
N 1
given as
j 2 ( f nf ) t
(5.1)
x(t ) d n e

0 t TN

n 0

To obtain the ith desired symbol we multiply by

1 T the period
and integrate
over
T

d
x (t )e j 2 ( f ) t dt N
i

TN

TN

67

TN

x (t )e j 2 ( f0 if ) t dt

N 1

TN

n 0

TN

dn

TN

N 1

TN

n 0

di

dn

e j 2 ( n i ) ft dt
e j 2 ( n i ) t /TN dt
(5.2)

Discrete Fourier Transforms

68

DFT and IDFT

N point DFT of Dk , 0kN-1

1
DFT[D k ] d n @
N

N 1

j 2 nk / N
D
e
k

0 n N 1

(5.3)

k 0

N point IDFT of dn , 0nN-1

1
IDFT[d n ] Dk @
N

N 1

j 2 nk / N
d
e
n

0 k N 1

n0

The DFT and IDFT are usually performed

(5.4)

Discrete(IFFT/FFT)
implementation of OFDM

Since OFDM is a block by block transmission,

for sake of analysis we will only consider a
OFDM symbol transmitted during [0 TN].
Hence the OFDM signal can be written as
N 1

x(t ) d n e j 2 nt /TN
n0

0 t TN

(5.5)

70

Discrete(IFFT/FFT)
implementation of OFDM
Suppose we now sample x(t) at a rate 1/Ts, so that
we get N samples per OFDM symbol duration
Dk @x(kTs )
N 1

d n e j 2 nkTs /TN
n 0

N 1

d n e j 2 nk / N
n 0

(5.6)

where we have used the fact, TN=NTs

From Eq. (5.4) and (5.6) it is quite obvious that the

time samples Dk , 0kN-1 are the IDFT of dn ,
0nN-1


1/T
s

OFDM Transmitter

71

OFDM Receiver

Cyclic Prefix/ Guard Interval

72

A guard interval, Tg, is added to each OFDM symbol to

eliminate ISI due to multipath effects. The length of
cyclic prefix is chosen to be greater than Tm where Tm
is the channel delay spread i.e. ( Tg > Tm)
There are two types of guard time intervals
Null or zero padding and
Cyclic extension
Mai
M-1
n
Path

OFDM Symbol
M
Tg

Delaye
d
Path

TN

M-1

OFDM Symbol
M+1
Tg

TN

OFDM Symbol
M
Tg

TN

OFDM Symbol
M+1
Tg

TN

Cyclic Prefix/ Guard Interval

73

Null or zero padding

In this case no signal is transmitted during the

interval Tg, only the last TN of the TN + Tg is used to
recover the data. However the zero padding may
give rise to intercarrier interference (ICI) and loss of
Subcarrier
orthogonality between the subcarriers.
1
Delayed
Subcarrier 2

Guard
Interval

FFT Integration Time= TN=1/f

Part of subcarrier 2 causing ICI on

Cyclic Prefix/ Guard Interval

74

Cyclic Extension

In cyclic extension, the last Tg samples of the

OFDM symbol (at the IFFT output) is appended at
the start of the symbol.
OFDM Symbol
M
Tg

TN

OFDM Symbol
M+1
Tg

TN

At the receiver only the last TN of TN+Tg is used to

recover the data. Cyclic extension eliminates not

Cyclic Prefix/ Guard Interval

75

Each subcarrier has integer number of cycles for the FFT

integration period (for the below waveforms it is 2, 4 and 6
respectively).
If the condition is valid, the spectra of the subcarrier will have
null spectrum nulls at all other subcarrier frequencies.

Guard
Interval
(Tg)

50

100

150

200

FFT Integration Time= TN=1/f

OFDM Symbol Duration, T=TN+Tg

250

300

Delayed
Subcarrier
(NO ICI)

Subcarrie
r with CP

Delayed
Subcarrier
(Will cause
ICI)
Subcarrie
r with
zero
padding

50

Guard
Interval

76

100

150

200

FFT Integration Time= TN=1/f

OFDM Block Duration, T=TN+Tg

250

300

Cyclic Prefix/ Guard Interval

77

Adding of cyclic prefix ensures that the delayed

replicas of all subcarriers associated with an OFDM
symbol always have an integer number of cycles
within an FFT integration interval as long as length
of cyclic prefix is greater than the channel delay
spread. Thus no ISI will occur in this case.

Cyclic Prefix/ Guard Interval

78

Guard
Interval

Symbol
M-1

140

160

180

Guard
Symbol
Interval
M+1

Symbol M

200

220

Tg

240

TN
T

260

280

300

320

340

N
subchannels

Data In
Symbol
Rate=
R=1/T

(bits/s)

QAM
Mod

serial
to
paralle
l

N-IFFT

add parallel
cyclic
to
prefix serial

DAC
and
transmit

TRANSMITTER
channel

QAM parallel
Demo
to
d
serial

Data Out
Symbol
Rate=
R=1/T
(bits/s)

invert
channel

(
frequenc
y
domain
equalizer

N-FFT

serial remove
to
cyclic
parallel prefix

Sync

RECEIVER

OFDM Baseband Block

Diagram

receive
and
ADC

Basic OFDM system

80

The whole baseband OFDM system

divided into following blocks:
Modulation/ Demodulation
Serial to Parallel Converter/Parallel to Serial
Converter
Fast Fourier transform/ Inverse Fast Fourier
Transform
Guard Interval (Cyclic Prefix) Insertion and
Removal
Channel
Frequency domain Equalization
DAC/ADC

OFDM Signal generation and

transmission

81

Incoming data from modulator is split into blocks of Nd

symbols each where Nd< N.

Usually Np pilot symbols are inserted on each OFDM block

for channel estimation at receiver end.
Ng guard subchannels are also inserted (Ng /2 at each end
of the spectrum) to compensate for non-ideal filter shapes
and/or to mitigate interference to adjacent channels.
Guard subchannels are usually null (zero) symbols.
Hence the total number of subcarriers,
N=Nd+Np+Ng

Example: In IEEE 802.11a Wireless LAN

standard
N=64, Np=4, Ng=12, Nd=48

82

The complete system

(Analytically)

Output
of QAM modulator: dn

Output of serial to parallel converter: dn , 0nN-1

Output of IFFTN 1Block: Dk , 0kN-1

Dk @

1
N

d e
n 0

j 2 nk / N

0 k N 1

Adding Cyclic prefix:

Cyclic Prefix: {DN- ,,DN-1} where Tm / Ts

The signal after Cyclic prefix:

Cyclic
Prefix

- k N-1

(5.7)

Original length N
sequence

D[N-], D[N-+1], . ,D[N-1] D[0], D[1], D[2], ., D[N--1]

D[N-+1]. D[N-1]
Append last sequence to

D[N-],

The complete system

(Analytically)

83

The
signal at the input of the receiver

==
Linear
Convolution

(5.8)

Circular
Convolution

The signal at the output of DFT block (ignoring the

noise nk and assuming that cyclic prefix length is
= }=than T 0nN-1
(5.9)
more
m)
1
DFT[Yk ] yn @
N

N 1

Y e
k 0

j 2 nk / N

0 n N 1

*Convolution in time domain is multiplication in

frequency domain.

y
The signal afterd the
(5.10)

, Frequency
0 n N 1domain equalization
h
(assuming that is estimated by training symbols)
n

Overhead due to cyclic

prefix

84

The benefits of adding cyclic prefix comes at

a cost. Since symbols are added to the
input data block, there is an overhead of /N
and hence the data rate of the OFDM
system reduces by N/(+N).
For example in IEEE 802.11a, Number of
samples for CP, = 16 and N=64, hence the
overhead is 16/64=0.25 and the data rate
reduces by 64/80=0.8.

EXAMPLE 1
85

Consider an OFDM system with total passband

bandwidth
B= 1MHz and ideal Nyquist
filtering. A single carrier system would have symbol
time Ts=1/B=1s. The channel has maximum delay
spread of Tm=5s, so with T= 1s and Tm= 5s there
would be clearly severe ISI.
Assume an OFDM system with MQAM modulation
applied to each subchannel. To keep the overhead
small, the OFDM system uses N=128 subcarriers to
mitigate ISI. So TN=NTs=128 s. The length of the
cyclic prefix is set to =8 > Tm/Ts to insure no ISI
between OFDM symbols. For these parameters, find
the subchannel bandwidth, the total transmission

Given:
Total Bandwidth, B= 1MHz
Input Symbol Time= 1s
Channel Delay spread, Tm= 5s
M=16
Length of cyclic prefix= 8 samples
Number of subcarriers= 128
OFDM symbol Duration, TN=128 s
Deduce:
Subchannel Bandwidth, BN
The total transmission time, T of OFDM symbol
Overhead of cyclic prefix, /N.
Data rate of the system, R

86

Solution:
Step 1: The subchannel Bandwidth
BN=1/TN=7.812KHz or BN= B/N=7.812KHz
Step 2: The total transmission time, T for each
OFDM symbol
T=TN+Tg=128+Ts = 128+8=136s

Step 3: Overhead with cyclic prefix

/N =8/128=0.0625=6.25%
Step 4: Data rate of the system
k=log2M=4bits/symbol per subcarrier every T
seconds
Hence data rate, R=4128/13610-6=3.76
87
Mbps

EXAMPLE 2
88

Consider the design of an OFDM system. The

goal is to transmit data a rate of 2 Mbps using
16-QAM with an available bandwidth of 600
kHz. It is known that the delay spread of the
channel is upto a maximum of 20s. You can
assume a cyclic prefix interval equal to the
max delay spread. Four guard channels at
each end of the signal spectrum are also
required.
Find the total number of sub-carriers and
total
transmission time of OFDM symbol.

Given:
Required Data Rate, R= 2 Mbps
Bandwidth, B= 600 kHz
Ng=24=8
Tm=Tg=20s
M=16
Deduce:
Total Number of subcarriers, N
The total transmission time, T of OFDM symbol

89

Let Ng, Nd and N be the number of guard subchannels,

the number of data subcarriers and total number of
subcarriers respectively. Moreover, let Tg, TN and T be
the cyclic prefix interval, OFDM symbol duration and
total block duration respectively.
TN=1/ f where f is the inter-carrier spacing
Total transmission time/ block duration, T=Tg+TN
For 16 QAM we have, k=4 bits per symbol.
4 Nd
2bit
106rate
,
The required
is 2 Mbps, hence we must have
T
4Nd
2 106
Tg TN

(5.11)

((2 N g ) N d )f 600kHz

From the bandwidth constraint we have

TN
90

8 Nd
1

f 600 103

(5.12)

Combining (5.11) and (5.12) we get,

4Nd

2 106 ,

8 Nd
600 103
4 600 103 N d
2 106
12 8 N d

20 106

N d 100

91

Hence the total number of subcarriers are,

N=Nd+Ng=100+8=108
Substituting Nd=100 in Eq.(5.11) we get the
OFDM symbol duration as
TN=108/600=0.18ms and Total Block
Duration= T=0.18ms+0.02ms=0.2ms

OFDM Symbol
M
Tg

Cyclic
Prefix

TN

OFDM Symbol
M+1
Tg

TN

Original length N
sequence

D[N-], D[N-+1], . ,D[N-1] D[0], D[1], D[2], ., D[N--1]

D[N-+1]. D[N-1]
Append last sequence to
beginning
92

D[N-],

Spectrum of OFDM Signal

93

As discussed in previous slides, each OFDM

symbol is transmitted during the time duration
TN=NTs, where Ts is the input symbol rate.
Since it is a block by block transmission, the
receiver input during each symbol duration
(after removing the samples associated with
1
cyclic prefix) can Nbe
written
as
j 2 ( f nf ) t
de

x(t )

n 0

w(t )

(5.13)

where w(t) is the rectangular

function given as
1 0t T
w(t )

(5.14)

otherwise

Spectrum of OFDM Signal

94

Taking the Fourier Transform

(
f

n
/
T

n
N ) W ( f )
n0

X(f )

N 1

N 1

d nW ( f n / TN )

(5.15)

n 0

The Fourier transform of w(t) is

W f TN sinc( fTN )e j fTN

(5.16)

Thus the received OFDM symbol has a Fourier

N 1
spectrum
X(f ) T
d sinc(( f n / T )T )e j ( f n /T )T
N

n 0

N 1

TN (1) n d n sinc( fTN n)e j fTN

n 0

(5.17)

Spectrum of OFDM Signal

95

It can be easily verified that there is no ICI

by showing X(kf)=X(k/TN)=cdk (where c is
constant)
X (k / T ) T ( 1) d sinc(k n)e
N 1

jk

n 0

N 1

TN ( 1) n k d n k ,n
n 0

(5.18)

TN d k
1
0.9
0.8
0.7

power spectral density

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0
frequency

Frequency Domain
Equalization

96

Slide 22 in Lecture 15 demonstrated the frequency

domain equalization for the OFDM system. It was
shown that in absence of noise the best estimate of
dn was
y
dn n ,
hn

0 n N 1

Equalization in frequency domain consist of scaling

the received sub-carrier by a complex scalar, namely
the estimated channel response at the nth carrier.
Channel frequency response are typically estimated
by various means (such as pilots sub-carriers,
training symbols, long preamble etc.)

Advantages of OFDM
97

By dividing the channel into narrowband flat

fading subchannels OFDM is more resilience to
frequency selective fading thus eliminating the
use of expensive and complicated time domain
equalizers which are commonly used in single
carrier systems.
Allows carriers to overlap, resulting in lesser
wasted bandwidth without any Inter Carrier
Interference (ICI).
Eliminates ISI and ICI through the use of a cyclic
prefix.
Using adequate channel coding and interleaving
one can recover symbols lost due to the
frequency selectivity of the channel.

Drawbacks of OFDM

Peak-to-average-Power Ratio (PAPR)

d(0)

One of the major drawbacks of OFDM as compared

to single carrier systems is large peak to average
power ratio (PAPR). An OFDM signal consists of a
number of independently modulated subcarriers
which when added coherently give a large PAPR.
Large PAPR causes nonlinear distortion in the
x(t ) A a

transmitted OFDM signal when it is passed

x(through
t ),

nonlinear High Power Amplifier (HPA) y(t ) j (t ) x(t ) A

d(1)

98

d(N-1)

A.e

x(t)

N
IDFT

Clipping
Spectral
Regrowth
-A

Nonlinear system

Peak-to-average-Power Ratio (PAPR)

99

Problems with High PAPR

Compromises the efficiency of the high power
amplifier as the power amplifier needs to be
operated in linear region to avoid nonlinear
distortions.
A high PAPR signals needs a high resolution A/D
converter at the receiver, since the dynamic range
of the signal is much larger for high PAPAR signals.
High resolution A/D increases the complexity and
2
max x(t )
power consumption at the receiverPAPR
front end.
x(t ) 2
E
PAPR of continuous time signal is given as

What is PAPR of square wave and sine wave?

What can be the maximum value of PAPR for

Drawbacks of OFDM
100

Inter-Carrier Interference
OFDM signals are more sensitive to carrier frequency
offset and phase noise than single carrier systems. Phase
noise and frequency offset are two major phenomena
that causes the inter-carrier interference.
Frequency offset is the difference between the
transmitter and receiver frequency.
Phase noise is the random phase jitter cause by the
mismatch in oscillator frequencies etc.
Example: If the carrier frequency Oscillator
is accurate to 1 part per million then the
f e f o (1 106 )
frequency offset,
For IEEE 802.11a, f0=5 GHz, then
fe=5000 Hz which will degrade the orthogonality
of the subcarriers as shown in the figure.

101

Impairments of OFDM
system
The performance of the OFDM systems can
suffer due to various systems or channelinduced impairments. These are
Frequency Offset
Timing Mismatch
Time Varying channel
Nonlinear system behavior

Timing Offset
102

If the cyclic prefix length of the OFDM block

duration, , is greater than the sample timing
offset, , i.e. then the effects of timing offset
are negligible and only causes a phase shift in the
data symbol as shown below.
Let the received signal x(t) be sampled at a rate
1/Ts with timing offset

N 1
x(t ) d n e j 2 nt /TN
n 0

N 1

xk @x(kTs ) d n e j 2 n /TN e j 2 nk / N
n 0

(5.19)

Timing Offset
103

Taking the FFT of xk we get

1
di
N
1

N
1

N 1

x e
k 0

j 2 ki / N

N 1 N 1

d e
k 0 n0

N 1

d e
n0

j 2 n / TN

j 2 n / TN

e j 2 ( n i ) k / N

(5.20)

N n ,i

di e j 2 i / TN

It is quite obvious from Eq. (5.20) that timing

offset only result in the phase shift of the
data symbol (without ISI). Moreover, the
amount of phase shift depends linearly with
sub-carrier index.

Frequency Offset

10

As mentioned before frequency offset introduces ICI

and affects the orthogonality of the OFDM
subcarriers. This has significant impact on the SNR
of the OFDM system. In order to maintain an
Signal-to interference ratio of 20dB or more the
offset cannot be more than 4% of the inter-carrier
spacing.
The signal corresponding to the subcarrier i can be
simply expressed
the data symbol
xi (as
t ) ( suppressing
e j 2 it /TN
(5.21)
and carrier frequency)

xi m (t ) e j 2 (i m )t /TN

An interfering subchannel can be written as

j 2 ( i m ) t /TN

(5.22)

(5.23)

If the signal isxidemodulated

with a frequency offset
m (t ) e

The ICI between the subchannel x i and xi+m is

simply the inner product between them
Im

TN

TN (1 e j 2 ( m ) )
xi (t ) x im (t )
j 2 (m )
*

It is quite obvious from Eq. (5.24) that if =0,

then Im=0 (hence no ICI). The total ICI power on
2
the subcarrier
i is then
ICI
I C (T ) 2 ,
i

10
5

(5.24)

m i

(5.25)

Where Co is some constant. Some interesting

observations

As TN

The ICI grows with frequency offset,

ICI is not directly affected by number of

hence ICI

OFDM Synchronization
106

Synchronization in OFDM is required to find

the start of an OFDM frame and before the
demodulation can be done for the subcarriers.
As stated before, since OFDM has a long
symbol duration (due to parallel transmission)
it is less sensitive to timing jitters as compare
to single carrier systems. However, frequency
offset and phase noise severely impacts the
performance of OFDM system. There are
various levels of synchronization in OFDM as
shown below.

Coarse timing recovery (Frame/ Packet/Slot

synchronization)

Coarse frequency Offset Estimation/

corrections

Fine frequency corrections (after FFT)

Fine timing corrections (after FFT)

10

108

Coarse timing synchronization

It provides the frame (packet or slot) starting
point. The coarse timing synchronization is
usually achieved by correlating the incoming
signal with a known preamble.
This is performed prior to FFT demodulation.
Since timing offset does not violate the
orthogonality of the sub-carriers, fine timing
offset can be done after the FFT.
Null symbol type synchronization: In this case
a silence period of a know duration is inserted
at the start of the frame followed by envelope

Coarse timing
synchronization

109

Preamble symbols are usually used in coarse

timing synchronization of packet/ burst type of
transmission like IEEE 802.11a WLAN. In this case
known preamble symbols are repeatedly
transmitted at the start of each frame/packet. The
receiver correlates the received signal with the
stored preamble. Repetition of the stored preamble
reduces the false alarm
RSSIrates and improves the
Estimate
Received
probability of detection
of start of the frame.

Data

Input Buffer

Correlator
output
Stored preamble
Frame Synchronization

Threshold
comparison