TOFD

Time of Flight Diffraction

TOFD Technique

Overview
Calibration
Applications
Summary &
Limitations

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TOFD Overview

Forward Diffraction
Technique
First described by Silk
in 1977
Using diffracted signals
from crack tips

Traditional grey scale

TOFD presentation

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Advantages of TOFD Technique

Wide coverage area using a pair of transducers

Accurate flaw sizing; amplitude-independent
Sizing technique using time-of-flight information
On-line volume inspection - very fast scanning
Setup independent of weld configuration
Sensitive to a variety of defects
No sensitivity to defect orientation
Amplitude-insensitive - acoustical coupling less critical

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 Modification or deflection of sound beam

Sound striking defect causes oscillation
Diffraction
Ends of defect become point sources
Not related to orientation of defect
Weaker signal than reflected needs higher gain
Sharp defects provide best emitters
Tips signals are located accurately
Time of flight of tip signals used to size

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Diffraction

The incoming wave

vibrates the defect.
Each point of the
defect generates new
elementary spherical
waves called
diffraction
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Waves
Incident
wave

Diffracted
waves All directions
Low energy

Reflected
wave

FLAW

Diffracted
waves
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Independent
of incidence
angle

Conventional Use of Diffraction

Tip

diffraction method (satellite-pulse observation technique)

Amplitude

1
Angle
2
1

Slot or crack
Time

TOF
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Tip diffraction

Corner reflection
TOF, Angle and velocity Height

Signals

Signals Received
Lateral wave
Subsurface
Back-wall echo
Mode converted (shear wave) echo

Define top and bottom of part

Note phase change

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Basic Principles of the

TOFD Technique

TOFD: Typical Setup

Transmitter

Receiver
Lateral wave
Upper tip
Lower tip
Back-wall reflection

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A-Scan Signals
Transmitter

Lateral wave

Receiver

Back-wall reflection
BW

LW

Upper tip
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Lower tip

Some Typical Defects

Upper

surface breaking crack

Back wall breaking crack
Horizontal planar defect

Upper Surface Breaking Crack

Transmitter

Lateral wave is blocked

Receiver

Back-wall reflection
BW
No Lateral wave
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Crack tip
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Back Wall Surface Breaking Crack

Transmitter

Lateral wave

Receiver

Back wall echo blocked

LW

Tip
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No back
wall echo

Horizontal Planar Defect

(Lack of Inter-Run Fusion, Laminations)
Transmitter

Receiver

Lateral wave
Reflected signal

Back wall reflection

BW

LW

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Reflection echo
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Data Visualization
Amplitude
+

White

Time

Black

Time
One A-scan picture is replaced by one gray-coded line
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Data Visualization
LW

A-scan

D-scan

Upper
surface
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BW

Back wall

Calibration Tools

A-scan

PCS
LW
T

BW

Parameters:
PCS, Thickness,
velocity, Probe delay,
Lateral wave or
Back wall
Not all of the parameters need to
be known
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D-scan

Measurement Tools
d1
h

A-scan
d1
t1

t2

Cursors
Build-in calculator

t1,t2 d1, d2 and h are

automatically calculated

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P
D-scan
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Defect Position Influence

S

S
Receiver

Transmitter

t0

t0
d
x

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Defect Position Uncertainty

S

S
Receiver

Transmitter

t1

t2

Constant time
locus
(t1+t2=ct)

dmin dmax

In practice:
Maximum error on absolute depth position lies below 10 %.
Error on height estimation of internal (small) defect is negligible.
Caution for small defects situated at the back wall.
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Transverse Scan
Time will be
minimum when
probes are
symmetrically
positioned over
the defect

Lateral
wave

Upper surface

Back-wall
B-scan
This type of scan yields a typical inverted parabola

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What do TOFD scans really look like?

TOFD
images
show the
lateral wave
and
backwall,
plus SW
signals after
and
reflections
from all
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defects

Lack of Fusion

Porosity

Incomplete
Penetration
Slag

Source: Ginzel

What do TOFD scans really look like?

Lateral wave is
clearly seen in a good
TOFD scan.
Typically used for
calibration.
On clean material,
defects show up well.
Backwall is always
strong. Watch for
perturbations.
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Recommended Solution

TOFD: YES
BUT: do not forget the good things offered by the
standard Pulse-Echo technique
SOLUTION: do both TOFD and PE
simultaneously, without reducing the scan speed

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Typical Requirements for TOFD and PE Applications

Small, lightweight, 1 to 16 channels

PE and TOFD software
Lateral wave straightening
Real-time averaging
Multi-channel data acquisition and display
Linearization for true depth on flat or cylindrical
surfaces
Processing (data compression,..)

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Calibration

A-scan
PCS
LW

BW

PCS, Thickness, velocity,

Probe delay, Lateral
wave or Back wall

Typical multi-channel UT
instrument is very user friendly
and guides you with a software
Wizard
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D-scan

Weld 1
(PL4882)

Toe crack

Porosity

Lack of side wall fusion

12.5 mm

Lack of root fusion

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Weld 1 (plate 4882) with Pulse-Echo

TOFD and PE
clearly show the
defects embedded
in this weld:
Lack of Fusion
(root)
Lack of Sidewall
Fusion
Porosity
Toe Crack
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Parallel Scan
LW

A-scan

D-scan

Upper
surface
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BW

Back-wall

Recommended Solution

TOFD

PE 45 SW

PE 60 SW

The system allows for simultaneous

acquisition and analysis (inTomoview
only) of TOFD and PE
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Linearized Lateral Wave

Receiver

Transmitter
Lateral wave

Couplant thickness variation

Change in time of flight

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Linearized Lateral Wave

Receiver

Transmitter
Lateral wave

Misalignment variations
Change in time of flight

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Linearized Lateral Wave

Transmitter

Receiver
Lateral wave

Small mechanical variations of probe separation

Change of time of flight

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TOFD Advantages

Excellent PoD for mid-wall defects

Good detection of mis-oriented defects
Can characterize surface-breaking defects
Excellent sizing for defects in transverse TOFD mode,
especially with signal processing
Tolerable sizing for defects in linear mode
Works very well in conjunction with pulse-echo

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TOFD Limitations

Dead zone of ~3mm at outer surface

Potential dead zone at inner surface
Prone to noise
Over emphasizes some benign defects, e.g.
porosity, laminations, interlamellar LoF
Not easy to interpret

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A Few Final Words on TOFD

Is the best defect sizing technique available when correctly

set-up
Use in conjunction with pulse-echo for code and PoD
reasons

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Signals
Lateral Wave

Back-wall Echo
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Calculator

TOFD probe separation can be calculated with basic mathematical formula or

Excel calculator tools

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Calculator

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Calculator
-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

Z-axis (mm.)

-5
-15
-25

-13.6

-28.9

-35
-45
-55
X-axis (mm.)

7MHz 100mmPCS 1.5 cycles assumed

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Note volume coverage less than ideal at this

PCS (missing upper third). -12dB beam
transmit only used for coverage calculation
48

60

70

80

Calculator
-80

-70

-60

-50

-40 -30

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

Z-axis (mm.)

-5

-6.6

-15
-23.3

-25
-35
-45
-55

X-axis (mm.)

Increase refracted angle to 65 improves coverage without

compromising resolution (for these specific conditions) PCS
remains the same.
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70

80

Flaw Tip

Flaw lengths parallel to the surface can be measured from the TOFD image by
fitting hyperbolic cursors similar to SAFT correction but SAFT post-processes
the data

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TOFD - SAFT

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Pre-SAFT processing

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Post-SAFT Processing

Limitations of TOFD
Cannot detect all defects
Limited coverage results from two potential
dead zones

Dead zone near the surface

as a result of the lateral wave

Dead zone at the backwall

resulting from the width of the backwall reflection

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Other Typical Defects

Near Surface Crack

1
2

The crack blocks the Lateral Wave

And the lower tip appears on the A-scan
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Incomplete Root Penetration

1

2
3
4

4 2

1 3

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

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Lack of Root Penetration

1

1
2
3

Note the inverted phase between LW and defect

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Lack of Fusion - Side Wall

1
1

2
3

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

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Porosity
1
1

Porosity may image in many forms

whether individual or cluster
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Transverse Crack
1

1
2

2
3

n the LW we can observe the wide beam effect on the crack

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Concave Root
1
1

Distortion of back-wall echo

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Lack of Fusion - Interpass

1
2
3

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Choosing an Angle
Optimum Upper tip q
64
Optimum Lower tip q
68

Angle selected is a
compromise for depth
May require selecting
several zones for best
results

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From Charlesworth & Temple

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TOFD Advantages
Diffracted rather than reflected signals
Longitudinal waves
B-scan type imaging (side view)
Accurate sizing capability (height)
Fast scanning
Interpretation of defects
Less sensitive to defect orientation

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TOFD Limitations
Blind area - near surface, backwall
Weak signals
Flaw classification limitation
Interpretation of defects
Sensitive to grain noise

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Codes and Standard

British Standard
European
ASME

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TOFD Guides Developed

BS 7706 (1993) Guide to calibration and
setting-up of the ultrasonic time-of-flight
diffraction (TOFD) technique for detection,
location, and sizing of flaws. British
Standards Institute 1993.
pr EN 583-6 (1995) Nondestructive testingultrasonic examination - Part 6: Time-offlight diffraction technique as a method for
defect detection and sizing.

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ASME Adaptations to TOFD

ASME VIII Code Case 2235 (2000 Edition)
Ultrasonic examination to be in accordance
with ASME Section V, Article 4
Alternatively, for techniques that do not use
amplitude recording levels, .
This has opened the door for TOFD to be
used on Section VIII pressure vessels

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TOFD technique

Root Crack

Root crack defect

X-Ray

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TOFD technique

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Porosity

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Porosity defect

TOFD technique

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Slag inclusion

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Slag inclusion defect

Lack of Root Fusion

TOFD technique

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Lack of root fusion defect

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TOFD technique

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Root Concavity

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Root Concavity defect

Incomplete Root Penetration

Incomplete root penetration defect

TOFD technique

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TOFD technique

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Over Penetration
Over penetration defect

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Irregular Root Penetration

TOFD technique

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Irregular root penetration defect

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Excess Weld Cap

TOFD technique

Excess weld cap defect

X-Ray

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