Pensyarah:

C.K.Tan

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Theory and
Practice in
Teaching and
Learning

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Definition of Learning:
Development of new knowledge,
skills or attitudes as an individual
interacts with information and
environment
(Robert Heinich et. al., 2002)

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Definition of Learning:
Learning is a persisting change
in human performance or
performance potential [brought]
about as a result of the learners
interaction with the environment
(Driscoll, 1994, p. 8-9 in Newby,
T.J., 2000)
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Behaviorist perspective of Learning:

- Concept of operant conditioning (B.F.
Skinner in 1950s)
use rewards
- Concept of classical conditioning
(Ivan Pavlov, J.B. Watson, E.L.
Thorndike, in 1930s)
use stimuli (reinforcement)
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Behaviorist perspective of Learning:

- emergence of programmed
instruction that is leading a
learner through a series of
instructional steps to a desired
level of performance

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Cognitivist perspective of Learning:

- mental model of short-term and longterm memory

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Cognitivist perspective of Learning:

- Jean Piaget (1977) mentioned three
key concepts: schemata, assimilation
and accommodation
Schemata mental structures by which
individuals organize their perceived
environment

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Assimilation cognitive process by

which a learner integrates new
information and experiences into
existing schemata
Accommodation process of modifying
existing schemata or creating new ones

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Constructivist perspective of Learning:

- considers the engagement of
students in meaningful experiences
as the essence of learning
- learners create their own
interpretations of the world of
information

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Social perspective of Learning:

- known as observational learning
(Milller & Dollard, 1941)
- believe people can also learn without
a response observed or reinforced
(unlike behaviorist)
- 4 phases (attention, retention,
reproduction and motivation)
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Instruction is the arrangement of

information and environment to facilitate
learning
Environment place, methods, media
and technology

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Important features of Learning:

Active participation
Practice
Individual differences
Feedback
Realistic contexts
Social interaction

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Concrete-Abstract Continuum:
concrete experience help
students integrate prior
experience and thus facilitate
learning of abstract concepts
(Robert Heinich et. al., 2002)

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Cone of experience
(Edgar Dale, 1969)

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Concreteness:
Takes more time but meaningful
learning experience
Abstractness:
Save time, more info through
printed or spoken words but may
lost in learning
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Teaching-learning processes:
well-designed lessons to arouse
students interest; present new
materials; involve them in practice
with feedback; assess their
understanding; follow-up activities
(Gagne, 1985)

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The learning piramid

(Source: in Hofstetter, F.T., 2001)

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The ASSURE Model:

A procedural guide for planning
and conducting instruction that
incorporates media and technology
It focuses on planning surrounding
the actual classroom use of media
and technology rather than to
guide the entire process of
designing instructional systems
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Analyse learners
State objectives
Select methods, media
and materials
Utilize media and
materials
Require learner
participation
Evaluate and revise
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Methods and
Strategies in
Teaching and
Learning

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Instructional Methods

Cooperative learning
Discovery
Problem solving
Games
Simulation
Discussion
Drill and practice
Tutorial
Demonstration
Presentation
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Instructional Techniques

Focusing questions
Highlighting
Analogies
Mnemonics
Imagery
Concept maps
Embedded questions
Feedback
Case studies
Role playing
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Instructor-directed instruction:
Effectiveness depends on the
instructor
Ex: electronic presentation, video
clips presentation

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Instructor-independent instruction:
objectives are listed,
guidance in achieving objectives
is given, materials are
assembled and self-evaluation.
Ex: multimedia, hypermedia,
cooperative learning

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Media portfolios:
.. a collection of student work that
illustrates growth over a period of time
Portfolios allow students to gather,
organize and share info, test hypotheses
and demonstrates creativity and
personality. Ex: research papers, audio
and video recordings and computer
multimedia projects

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Thematic instruction:
Teachers organize their instruction
around themes or anchors
Integrating content and skills from many
subjects
A good theme can capture students
attention, provide problem-solving
experiences, support interdisciplinary
activities and include a variety of media
and technology
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Distance education:
It is used to reach a more diverse
and geographically dispersed
audience who do not have access
to traditional classroom instruction
It is delivered by instructional media
Ex: e-learning/online learning,
traditional correspondence course
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Methods:
Presentation (one way
communication controlled by the
source)
Demonstration (view real example
of the skill/procedures)
Discussion (exchange of ideas and
opinions among students or among
students and teacher)
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Methods:
Drill and Practice (a series of
practice exercises designed to
increased fluency in a new skill)
Tutorial (problem + learner
responses + feedback)
Cooperative learning (develop skills
in working and learning together in
a team; teacher as the working
partner)
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Methods:
Gaming (a playful environment in
which learners follow prescribed
rules as they strive to attain a
challenging goal)
Simulation (learners confront a
scaled-down version of a real-life
situation)
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Methods:
Discovery (inductive or inquiry
approach to learning; presents
problem to be solved through trial
and error)
Problem solving (develop, explain
and defend a solution or position on
the problem)

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Cooperative learning:
Small heterogeneous groups of
students working together to achieve a
common academic goal or task while
working together to learn collaboration
and social skills
Group members are interdependent
Involves active participation by all
students

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Advantageous of cooperative learning:

Active learning
Social skills
Interdependence
Individual accountability
Yield better acquisition and retention of
lesson content and better interpersonal
and thinking skills

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Examples on cooperative learning:

In a science project, one student is
assigned to search the internet, another
goes the library for background
research and others design and conduct
experiments; then meet to discuss
Implementation of cooperative learning
can also be computer-based (info
sharing via online forums, e-mailing)

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Learning Together Model (Johnson and

Johnson, 1993):
Feedback is a critical factor in successful
learning
4 basic elements:
-Positive interdependence
-Face-to-face helping interaction
-Individual accountability
-Teaching interpersonal and small-group skills

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Team-Assisted Individualization (Robert

Slavin, 1985):
Teaching groups
Team formation
Self-instructional materials
Team study
Team scores and team recognition

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Games:
Defined as an activity in which
participants follow prescribed rules that
differ from those of real life to achieve
goals
Goals should have a probability of
achievement of at least 50%
Games that based on realistic context
are called simulation games

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Advantageous of games:
Common features of behaviourism,
cognitivism, constructivism and social
psychology
Provide opportunity to practise content,
vocabulary and problem-solving skills
Students receive feedback based on the
consequences of their actions, answers
and decisions

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Simulations:
A simulation is an abstraction or simplification of
some real-life situation or process
It provides realistic practice with feedback in a
realistic context
It also includes social interaction
The device employed to represent a physical
system in a scaled-down form is called a
simulator
Ex: role play, flight simulators (no social
interactions), team simulations
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Advantageous of simulations:
Realistic
Implements problem-based learning
method
Solutions may be applied to real life

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Role plays:
It is an open-ended interaction among
people
Motivated and effective method of
developing social skills
Simulation games:
Combines attributes of a simulation (roleplaying, a model of reality) with the
attributes of a game (goal, specific rules)
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Learning centers:
It is a self-contained environment
designed to promote individual or smallgroup learning around a specific task
Designed for use by individuals, pairs or
triads
Provide student practice with feedback
through individualized activities
Commonly found in library

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Advantageous of learning center:

Self-pacing
Active learning
Coaching role of the teacher

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Programmed instruction:
Introduced by B.F.Skinner (1950s)
Student spend most of their time
performing the skills or displaying the
knowledge being taught
knowledge of the correct response is the
reinforcer
The programmed instruction is also known
as linear programming
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Programmed instruction:
Now, branching programming is widely
used as a mean for bright learners to go
more quickly
This method is popular for the
development of computer-assisted
instruction (CAI) and web-based
instruction

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Advantageous of programmed
instruction:
Self-pacing
Practice and feedback
Reliable form of learning
Effective learning

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Programmed tutoring:
It is one-to-one method of instruction in
which the tutors responses are
programmed in advance in a form of
printed instructions
Also known as structured tutoring
Tutors book has the answers but the
students does not have

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Advantageous of programmed tutoring:

Self-pacing
Practice and feedback
Reliable learning
Effective

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Programmed teaching:
It is also known as direct instruction, is an
attempt to apply the principles of programmed
instruction in a large-group setting
The class is broken into groups of 5 10 and
be taught by a teacher/student peer or
paraprofessional
Older students guide younger students
Designed to generate high rates of responding
by all students

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How to write Teaching and Learning

objectives?
Four important aspects:
Audience focus on what learners
are doing
Behaviour verb describing the new
capability that the audience will have
after instruction
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Continue ..

Conditions on what condition

(environment) can learners achieve the
objectives
Degree standard or criterion by
which acceptable performance will be
judged
Example:
The learners can classify types of birds
by its name according to its colour
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Classification of objectives:
Cognitive domain intellectual
capabilities
Affective domain feelings and values
Motor skill domain athletic, manual
and physical skills
Interpersonal domain interaction
among people
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Visual Material
for
Teaching
and Learning

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Visual-based lesson:
Using photographs, OHP, video
Students performed better with
visual treatment
(Cohen, Ebeling & Kulik, 1981)

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Roles of visuals:
Concrete referent for ideas
Iconic represents things we
see
Give motivation to learners
Simplify information

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Visuals must be:

realistic (Ex: photograph)
analogic (convey a concept by
showing something similar)
organizational (Ex: flowcharts,
graphs, maps, schematics and
classification chart

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Visuals must be:

verbal (good readable
font,lettering style and location)
add appeal [(surprise, texture (3D) and interaction (to answer
questions)]

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Principles of visual design:

Ensure the visual is there
Simplicity
Can capture attention
Participation

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Example on simplicity by visual

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Designing visuals:
Alignment of objects
shape (follow rules of 1/3)
balance
style
colour scheme

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Rule of one-third
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Example on balance
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Guidelines on colour by Pett & Wilson

(1996):
colour for reality
colour for discrimination
color to focus attention
colour for linking elements
consistency in using colours
saturated colours for children
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Visuals arrangement:
proximity (distance between
objects)
directional (arrows, etc)
good figure-ground contrast
consistency
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Which tag going to which picture ?

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Example on good proximity and balance

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Digital images:
Also known as non-linear media
From digital cameras
From scanners
Can create photo CDs with digital
images

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Manipulatives:
Real objects coins, tools,
artifacts, plants, animals
It can be handled and inspected
It promotes concrete learning
experience; builds schemata that
have meaning and relevance in
their lives
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Manipulatives:
Modifications can also be made:
Cutaways (machines, etc)
Specimens (preserved plants)
Exhibits (collections of artifacts
+ printed information)
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Models:
It is a 3-D representations of real
objects
It can provide learning
experiences that real things
cannot provide
Ex: model airplanes, multimedia
kits
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Models:
Assembling a model can
stimulate inquiry and discovery;
sharpen both cognitive and
psychomotor skills
Mock-ups simplified
representations of complex
devices or processes (Ex: mockups of PC, simulator)
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Field Trips:
It is an excursion outside the
classroom to study real processes,
people and objects
It is good for students to encounter
phenomena that cannot be brought
into the classroom for observation
and study (firsthand observation /
participation)
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Examples of Field Trips:

A few minutes trip to observe
plants/animals
several days trip to tour historical
places
virtual field trips using internet (listen
& hear the sound of life in London)
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Field Trips:
After the field trip, follow-up
activities can be done:
Discussion of the trip, reports,
projects, demonstrations, creative
writing, individual research, class
experience stories and exhibits of
pictures, etc.

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Printed materials:
It includes textbooks, fiction and nonfiction book, booklets, pamphlets,
study guides, manuals, worksheets
and documents
Advantages:
Availability, flexibility, portability, userfriendly and economical
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Printed materials:
Limitations:
Reading level, prior knowledge,
memorization, vocabulary, oneway presentation, can influence
the curriculum, quality appraisal

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How to use printed materials ?

SQ3R Method
Survey (skimming read overview/summary)

Question (write questions while reading)

Read (check main ideas; answer previous

questions)
Recite (do reading)
Review (read the materials again)

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Free and inexpensive materials:

Examples:
Poster, games, pamphlets,
brochures, reports, charts, maps,
books, audiotapes and videotapes
Some of these materials are
available at resource centres and via
the internet
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Display surfaces:
They are used to display visuals
such as photographs, drawings,
charts and posters
Examples:
chalkboard (blackboard)
multipurpose board (whiteboard)
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Examples of Display surfaces:

copy board (electronic
whiteboard); can print handouts
pegboard (with small holes one
inch apart)
bulletin board (for announcements,
notices)
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Display surfaces:
Examples:
cloth board
magnetic board
flip chart (a pad of large paper
fastened together at the top and
mounted to an easel)
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Electronic-based
Material for
Teaching and
Learning

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Hearing is the foundation of listening

Techniques to improve listening
abilities:
Guide listening
Give directions
Listen for main ideas, details,
inferences
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Techniques to improve listening

abilities:
Listen to sentences with word
missing
Analyse structure of a
presentation
Distinguish between relevant and
irrelevant information
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Audiotape:
Advantages:
Portable (small and light)
Durable
Easy to use
Can prevent accidental erasing

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Audiotape:
Disadvantages:
Tape can entangle
Noise and hiss
No hi-fi for cheap players
Difficult to repair broken tapes
Difficult to edit
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CD:
Advantages:
Durable
Hi-fi
No background noise
Random search
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MP3:
MPEG Audio Layer 3
Streamed audio (compressed)
Will have more T & L material in
one CD

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Integration:
Integration of audio is useful for T
&L
MP3 music
Audiotapes recorded speech
Now audio can be integrated into
T & L via computer digital
format
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Video:
Video is electronic storage of
moving images in Latin I see
TV transmission of live moving
images electronically
Example: video cassette,
videodisc, DVD, interactive video,
video game
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Advantages of VCD/DVD:
Flexible storage capacity
Fast random access to specific
frames
Durable, less wear and tear
Cheap when mass-produced
Disadvantages:
Expensive to produce
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Advantages of video cassette:

Cheap
Easily available
Disadvantages:
Difficult to locate required
learning sequence
Tapes entangle easily
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Internet video:
Streaming video
Starts playing before complete
downloading
Example: .rm, .ra, .swf

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Advantages of video:
Portraying concepts in motion
Show processes
Risk-free observation (Example:
nuclear plant operation)
Dramatization
View repeatedly for skill learning
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Advantages of video:
Affective learning
Motivation for problem solving
Cultural understanding
Establishing commonality on
issues

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Type of video applications:

Develop cognitive skills (read
books in conjunction with viewing
videotapes)
Demonstrations (show how things
work)
Virtual field trip (clips on places of
interest)
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Type of video applications:

Documentary (show facts)
Dramatization (drama by people)
Discussion basis (watch video
and discuss including socialising)
Attitude development (affective
learning with video)
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Type of video applications:

Reports and portfolios (part of
video is used for reports)
Training (watch processes)

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When you use visuals, audio or video

for T & L:
Use ASSURE model as a guideline
for preparing them
All audio/video must be previewed
first before actually implementing it
(utilizing materials)

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Advantages of computer:
Instantaneous response
Big storage
Can manipulate information
Serve multiple users
simultaneously
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Types:
Computer-assisted Instruction
(CAI) computer materials in
a controlled sequence such as
drill and practice exercises
Computer-managed Instruction
(CMI) stores students
profiles and materials; diagnostic
test
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Roles of computers:
Object of instruction
learn to use software
(programming, etc)

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Roles of computers as a tool:

Calculator, word processor,
multimedia composer,
communication device
Learn from databases; learn
to manage info such as
retrieving, sorting and
organizing
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Roles of computers:
Computer as a tool:
Branching based on students
responses
engaging students in learning;
develop owns schemata

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Roles of computers:
Instructional device
Provide complex tasks to
engage students in real-world
problems
Teaching logical thinking
Develop powerful ideas from
certain games
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Some T & L methods using

computer:
Concept mapping:
Map ideas in boxes, connecting
ideas,
Drill and practice:
Provide a variety of questions
with varied formats
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Some T & L methods using computer:

Tutorial:
Computers acts as the teacher
Check students responses with
appropriate feedback
Games:
Recreational games for building
computer literacy
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Some T & L methods using computer:

Discovery:
Learners employ an information
retrieval strategy to get info from
database
Problem solving:
Analyze presented data/info, define
problem, state hypotheses, perform
experiments, create solutions
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Integrated Learning System (ILS):

Networked computers equipped
with software to present materials
(e-learning LMS such as
Blackboard, WebCT etc)
Tracks individual student
progress

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Facilities:
One-computer classroom
Demonstrations for large group
Design group activities for
small group
Learning centre
Personal secretary for the
teacher
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Facilities:
Multiple-computer classroom
Computer lab (more students
being taught simultaneously)
Networked computers bring a
lot of benefits; sharing info
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Multimedia kits:
A collection of teaching/learning
materials involving more than one
type of medium and organized
around a single topic
Kits CD-ROMs, filmstrips,
slides, audiotapes, videotapes,
still pictures, OHP, maps,
worksheets, charts, graphs, etc
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Advantages of multimedia kits:

Arouse multisensory interest
Promote cooperative learning
(small group project work)
Logistic advantage (easily
packaged and transported)

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Disadvantages of multimedia kits:

Expensive
Time consuming to produce
various materials
Lost components can make the
kit frustrating to use

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Virtual reality:
Computer-generated 3-D
environment where the user can
operate as an active participant
Advantages of virtual reality:
Safety (flight training)
Visit real places not possible
to go
Opportunities to explore
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How to teach effectively?

Effective teachers always:
begin each new lesson with a review
state the goal of the lesson
present new material in small steps
give clear instructions and explanations
give students much time to practice
ask numerous questions
Rosenshine & Stevens (1986)
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Continue ..

Effective teachers always:

guide initial practice
provide explicit instructions for work given
hold weekly and monthly reviews
Rosenshine & Stevens (1986)

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