Climatology

Origin of the atmosphere on the

earth
Structure of atmosphere
Heat Budget
Albedo
Movement of air
Stability and instability
Adiabatic lapse rate

Precipitation processes:
evaporation- Humidity condensation-clouds
Types of clouds
Types of rainfall
Pressure system of the world
Planetary wind system
Variable winds

Structure of Atmosphere
Troposphere
Temperature decreases
with increasing height
GHG gas absorb long
wave terrestrial radiation
transparent to insolation
(short wave radiation)
Heated from terrestrial
radiation from earth
surface

Structure of Atmosphere
Stratosphere
Temperature
increases with
increasing height
Ozone layer absorbs
UV rays from
Insolation

Structure of Atmosphere
Mesosphere
Temperature
decreases with
increasing height
Absence of GHG gas
Going away from
Ozone layer

Structure of Atmosphere
Thermosphere
Temperature
increases with
increasing height
Gases are in ionic
state extremely hot
Ionosphere -Imp for
radio
communication

Basic air movement

Movement of air

Adiabatic lapse
rate

Temperature Inversion
Temperature
Inversion

Ex. Of Temp
Inversion tropopause

Temperature Inversion
Ex. Cool winter
night

Ex. Valley
inversion

Precipitation process
Evaporation

Humidity
Relative Humidity
Addition of moisture or
reduction of moisture
holding capacity of the
air packet = rainfall
1) Addition through
evaporation
2) Reduction through
upliftment of the air

Precipitation process
Condensationclouds

Types of clouds
according to their
height and shape
Nimbus clouds give
rainfall
Cumulonimbus
cloud indication of
instability
Cyclonic heavy

Types of rainfall
Convectional
rainfall

Orographic rainfall

Types of rainfall
Cyclonic rainfall

Frontal rainfall

Pressure system of the world

Planetary wind system

High pressure to low
pressure
Coriolis force clockwise
in northern hemi and anticlockwise in southern hemi
Trade winds
Westerlies
Polar easterlies

Upper tropospheric winds

LP
HP

LP

HP

Around tropopause,
there is only one
gradient
Wind accumulated
above equator and
rarified atmosphere
above poles
HP at the equator
and LP at the poles

Geo-strophic winds
Pole
s

Equat
or

strong coriolis force at

tropopause
Because friction is
less - high speed stronger the coriolis
force
So the deflection is 90
degree
Such winds called
geo-strophic winds

Geo-strophic winds
L
P
Equat
or

Poles

HP

L
P

Poles

Northern
hemisphere
Geostrophic deflect
clockwise
west to east
In southern
Hemisphere: Anticlockwise movement
Deflect west to east

Westerlies winds
The upper
tropospheric
winds / geostrophic
winds blow
from west to
east at the
very high
speed

Rossby waves
Westerlies at poles
to maintain the
angular momentumthey meander =>
Rossby waves
Rossby waves do not
meander
consistently, but
follow a cycle =
Index cycle

Jet streams
In westerlies, there
are strong, narrow
bands of high
speed wind => Jet
stream
Speed of Jet stream
300kmph

Jet streams location

Pol
ar
Hig
h

SPL
P

STH
P

Eq.
LP

There are
situated at the
margins of
meridional cells
4 permanent Jet
streams: 2 Polar
Jet and 2 SubTropical Westerly
Jet STWJ

Jet streams
Permanent jet
stream

Temporary jet
stream-TEJ
Tibet
plt. LP

Tropical
Easterl
y Jet

SW
Monsoon
winds
Masceren
e High

Temporary Jet Streams

Somali jet stream/
Findlater

Polar-night Jet
Polar
night
Jet
stream

Somali
Jet
stream
summ
er
winter

Jet streams Jet stream

embedded in
westerlies
(Rossby waves)
at high latitude,
cause pressure
variability
Thats why they
are called
travelling
depression

Jet Stream travelling depressions

Weather of Mid and high latitude

Weather of higher latitude is more complex than
weather of equatorial or tropical regions
Because tropical and equatorial region are heat
surplus region thermal reasons play the dominant
role.
But higher latitude are heat deficit region
dynamic reasons play dominant role
These include localised + upper-tropospheric
circulations (Rossby waves, Jet streams, temperate
cyclones)

Conditions for LP
Thermally induced
Because of high
temperature
Ex. LP at equator
Convectional
rainfall at equator

Dynamically
induced
Upliftment of warm
air
Ex. LP at sub-polar
LP belt
Frontal rainfall

Air mass
Large extensive body of
air-mass (1000sqkm)
Height upto Tropopause
At particular height, one
air mass will have
uniform temperature and
moisture across its width
Airmasses can be
differentiate according to
their temperature and
moisture content

Air mass
Air mass acquired
properties from the
source regions land,
marine, polar, arctic,
Antarctic = give them
identity. Ex. mP, cT
Extensive
homogeneous surface
+ longer stay (HP)

Air masses
Air masses do not
stay at their source
regions forever,
they move out.
While moving they
came across other
air masses.

Front
Warm
front

Cold
front

The relative
difference between
temperature and
moisture decide
their interaction with
one another
The border/ meeting
region of the two airmass => Front

Cold front

Cold air
mass

If cold air mass move

faster than the other
than it will lift the
warmer one upward
=> cold front
the slope will be steep
= there will be sudden
up-liftment of the
warm air =
cumulonimbus clouds
= cyclonic rain

Warm front
If warmer air mass
is more active than
cold front =>
warm front
slope will be
gentler = there
wont be sudden
up-liftment of
warm air = uniform
prolonged rain
drizzle

Fronts
Warm
front

Cold
air
mass
Cool
air
mass

warm
air
mass

Cold
front

Cold
front

Warm
front

Frontal cyclone
Also called as
extra-tropical
cyclone,
travelling
depressions,
cold-core
cyclone, wave
cyclones

Meaning of cyclone
1) Intense LP system
2)Air converges
towards the centre
3)In Northern
hemisphere
convergence
anti-clockwise
4)Closed isobars

Isobar
Normal isobar

Closed isobar

Conditions for LP
Thermally induced
Because of high
temperature
Ex. LP at equator
Convectional
rainfall at equator

Dynamically
induced
Upliftment of warm
air
Ex. LP at sub-polar
LP belt
Frontal rainfall

Development of Frontal cyclone

Movement of
airmasses from their
source region
The warm and cold air
mass face each other
A front is created
between them
Called Stationary front

Formative stage of frontal cyclone

Location of air
masses

Circular movement

Development of Frontal cyclone

Cold air mass pushed
the warm air mass
Forced upliftment of
warm air mass at the
cold front =LP
Two cold air mass
convergence
circular due to
coriolis force

Mature stage
Interaction of air
masses

LP closed isobars

Occluded front
One cold air mass
climb over other cold
air masswarm front is
destroyed
Called occluded front
Rapid change in
temperature and
pressure
Unstable weather
conditions

Dissipation of frontal Frontolysis

cyclone
no great
temperature
difference
between two
cold air
masses front
dissipated LP
reduced
cyclone
dissipated

Stationary front

Front

Occluded front

Frontolysis

Path of the temperate cyclone

Always west to east
direction
Because influence of
the Westerlies
Gradual and
predictable movement

Distribution of temperate cyclones

Temperate
cyclones

Tropical cyclone
Hurricane N.
America
Typhoon - China
Late summer
Increased sea
surface
temperature = LP

Tropical cyclone
Convergence of air
around LP zone
Rising moist (wet) air
=> absolute instability
Cloud formation =more
and more moisture
latent heat of
evaporation =>
cumulo nimbus cloud
=> cyclone

Mature Tropical cyclone

Intensification of
LP
Converging air
near water
surface
Circulating air
rises above
(coriolis force)
Diverging air at
the top of cyclone

Eye of the tropical cyclone

At the centre of the
cyclone eye of the
tropical cyclone.
It is a pressure defect.
Because, at eye a
narrow stream of wind
descend = is HP at eye
At the eye, there is clear
sky.
Beyond eye wall
extreme low pressure

Properties of tropical cyclones

Move swiftly
Always east to
west
It is fuelled by
moisture so
when cyclone is
cut-off from sea
and move towards
land it starts
weakening

Distribution of tropical cyclone

comparison
30-40 degree
Temperate cyclone
latitude
Dynamically
induced
Due to frontal
interaction
Formed over large
area
Move west to east
Gradual movement

Tropical cyclone
8-20 degree latitude
Thermally induced
Due to increasing
SST
Small area
Move east to west
Swift movementdifficult to predict
path

comparison
Temperate cyclone
Wind speed 40-50
kmph
Pressure gradient
980 mb
Powerful on land
Affect mainland
More time to
dissipate

Tropical
cyclone
Wind
speed
>120
kmph
Pressure gradient
<880 mb
Weakens on land
Affect only coastal
areas
Quickly dissipate
after coming on

Q. Tropical cyclones are largely

confined to South China Sea,
Bay of Bengal and Gulf of
Mexico. Why? (10)

Question
UPSC
Mains
2014

Reason for location of Tropical cyclone

1) Tropical water
2) Warm ocean
currents
3) Increase SST in
late summer
4) Tropical
cyclone move
east to west
5) Landmass on
western coast

Thunderstorm
Local storm
for short period
of time
Heavy rainfall
with thunder
and lightning

Thunderstorm
Strong upward
movement of
warm moist air
Atmospheric
instability
Cumulonimbus
clouds
convectional
rainfall

Stages of thunderstorm

Stages of thunderstorm

1) Air motion mostly upward

2) When accumulated load of water and
ice becomes excessive downdraft
starts. Descending water droplet
evaporate- cool the air increase
more downdraft action
3) Downdraft spreads throughout the
cell

lightning
Within thunderstorm
updrafts,
downdrafts, ice and
water particles
Thunder clouds
produce excessive
negative charge at
height where temp is
btwn -5 to -15 deg c
+ve charge at higher
and lower altitude

Lightning
Create high electric
field
Reason unknown
When accumulated
charge becomes
large Lightning between
opposite charge
within cloud, to
ground, to neutral
atmosphere

Types of thunderstorm

Thermal thunderstorm
Localised intense
heating of ground
during summer
afternoon
Equatorial regions
Die out if passes
over water body
because absence of
supply of heat

Orographic thunderstorm
Warm moist air
when passes over
mountain barrier
Forceful upliftment
latent heat of
condensation
Cloud burst
In Cherrapunji
during monsoon

Cold front thunderstorm

Active air
masses
forceful
upliftment of
warm moist air
Localised and
short-lived

Q. Which one of the following

weather conditions is indicated
by a sudden fall in barometer
reading?
a) Stormy
b) Calm weather
c) Cold and dry weather
d) Hot and sunny weather

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2001

Tornedo
It forms on land
Higher wind speed
than tropical
cyclone
But smaller than
tropical cyclone
Intense LP system
Exact mechanism
unknown

Water spout in tornado

When tornado
passes over a
water body water
is sucked up
towards center of
tornedo
Called water spout

Distribution of tornedo in world

Distribution of tornedo
worldin
Occurinmostly
temperate regions
(20 to 60 deg N,S)
Where cold polar
air meets warm
tropical air
USA, South-west of
great plain
tornado alley

Polar vortex
It is a large scale
cyclone that encircles
geographical poles of
the earth
Span =1000 sqkm
It develops at upper
troposphere or
stratosphere

Polar vortex
It originated during
winters due to sharp
temperature
differential created
between poles and
equator
Development of
Polar night Jet
streams
Circular movement

Polar vortex
Rossby waves can
disrupt the
circulation around
the polar vortex
North moving
warm air masses
and HP systems

Cold wave polar vortex

Disruption in
polar vortex can
push part of its
frigid air pockets
to southward
Produce cold
waves
Jan 2014 in USA

Polar vortex in USA 2014

Polar stratospheric clouds

Nacreous cloud/mother
of pearl
Polar stratospheric
clouds formed in winter
during polar vortex.
temperature below -80
degree 12 -22 km
height
Contains water, Nitric
acid and sulphuric acid

Ozone depletion
Nitric acid in polar
stratospheric clouds
reacts with CFC -create
chlorine
Chlorine concentration in
winter
in summer -Chlorine
reacts with oxygen
molecule of ozone destruct the ozone
molecule

Ozone depletion
Increased level of
CFC in atmosphere
Winter - Polar vortex
more concentration
of chlorine
Summer more
destruction of
Ozone layer

Ozone depletion
Polar vortex in northern
hemi are weak and not
as cold as formed at
Antarctica
Ozone depletion at
Arctic = Ozone dent
ozone depletion more
at southern pole =
Ozone hole

Montreal Protocol, 1987

(1989)
Restriction over usage and
release of CFC gases and HFCs
197 countries ratified
Most successful international
environmental treaty
In 2014 recovery of ozone
layer found

Ozone hole
Protocol

Pressure gradient cells

Vertical: Hadley,
Ferrell

Ferrel
cell

Horizontal: walker

Walkar cell at south Pacific

There are oscillation
in pressure gradient
and air circulation
after intervals of 23 years in south
Pacific Ocean
Called Southern
Oscillation
ENSO = EL Nino
Southern Oscillation

Normal year
West
Pacif
c
pool

LP

H
P

South equatorial
current pile up
water at northern
Australia
increase SST
called West Pacific
Pool
It brings rainfall in
Northern Australia

Normal year The diverging air

LP

H
P

above Australia
move towards
Peruvian coast
They descend at
Peruvian coast =
HP desiccating
effect to Atacama
desert
Completes the
Walker cell

Normal year

L
P
Downwelling

H
P

As south equatorial
current take water
from east to west,
it led water from
bottom to come up
and take the space
Up-welling at the
Peruvian coast =
rich fishing ground

El-Nino year

L
P

HP

Direction of walker
cell reverses
South equatorial
current weakens
(reason unknown)
Weak piling up of
water at Northern
Australia
Weakening of west
Pacific Pool

El-Nino year

H
Austral
P
ia

L
Peru
P

Ocean water move

towards Peruvian coast.
Create LP system over
there and rainfall at
Atacama desert
The rising and
diverging wind above
Peru descends over
Australia = HP
condition drought in
Northern Australia

El-Nino year

Downwelling

Upwellin
g

Upwellin
g

Downwelling

The reversal in
wind direction
alters submarine
cycle as well
Down-welling at
Peruvian coast
=> loss in
fishing business

Implications of El-Nino
El-Nino bring
drought
condition in
Indonesia as
well forest
fire
It is
responsible for
weak monsoon
in India

Implications of El-Nino on Indian Monsoon

LP

LP
H
P
Mascarene
High

Western
pacific Pool

Association of ElNino or Western

Pacific Pool with
Indian Monsoon
There can be
other atmospheric
cells associated
with Western
Pacific pool
Still undiscovered

Global Implications of El-Nino

With global warming there will be

increasing number of El-Nino events
It is a global phenomenon. Though
happening in limited area, it may have
wider implication over the globe

La-Nina
Intensification of walker
cell
Strong west pacific pool
Heavy rainfall flood
condition in Northern
Australia good
monsoon in India
Drought in Atacama
Very good fishing
business at Peruvian
coast price crash

Thunderstorm
Tornado
EL-Nino
La-Nina
implications

Climatic regions of the world

Climatic regions of the world

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Equatorial region
Tropical monsoon
Savannah
Steppe
Hot desert
Continental
deserts

7) Mediterranean
climate
8) China type
9) British type
10) Laurentian type
11) Taiga
12) Tundra

Equatorial regions in the world

 5-10 degree latitude

Equatorial climate
Same season
(weather)
throughout the year
Direct sunlight
heat surplus LP
condition every day
rising of moist air
advection rain every
evening
Hot-wet climate

Equatorial climate
Dense forest rainforest
lungs of the earth
High biodiversity
Tall trees (Abony,
Rosewood, mahogany,
rubber) epiphytes
But not good for
lumbering hardwood
high diversity loadingunloading very difficult

Equatorial climate
Amazon rainforest is
being cleared for rubber
plantation, oil exploration
Yasuni national park in
Ecuador cleared for oil
extraction biodiversity
is more than entire north
America - 2 uncontacted tribes
Rainforest of Indonesiacleared for oil-palm
cultivation

Equatorial climate
Equatorial climate
not good for
habitation hot and
moist climate
High incidents of
malaria and
diseases

Country
Congo
Malaysia

Primitive
tribe
Pigmy

Semang,
Orang Asli
Philippines Orang
Akita
Borneo
Dayaks

Q. Which of the following is/are

characteristics of equatorial
forests?
1. Presence of tall, closely set
trees with crowns forming
continuous canopy
2. Co-existence of a large
number of species
3. Presence of numerous
variety of epiphytes

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2013

a)
b)
c)
d)

1 only
2 an 3
1 and 3
1,2 and 3

Ans.d)

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2013

Tropical desert

STH
P

STH
P

STH
P

STH
P

Sub-tropical HP belt
Off-shore trade
winds by the time
rain bearing wind
reach from east to
west they become
dry so no rain on
western coast in
Northern hemisphere
and southern
hemisphere

Tropical desert
desiccating
effect of
cold
oceanic
current on
western
coast of
continents

Tropical desert
Arid-dry climate, scanty
rainfall, water deficit
Vegetation Xerophytic
Low population
Maghreb region high
poverty
Tauregs of Sahara,
Beduins of Arabia
Hottentots of Kalahari
desert

Continental desert
Interior of large
land
Rainfall bearing
winds cannot reach
there
Leeward side of the
mountain
Aridity (but no
sand dunes)
High annual temp
range

Continental deserts
China

South America

ALTUN
SHAN
TIEN
SHAN

ANDES
Range

Deserts to locate
Negev Desert
Kalahari Desert
Namib Desert
Atacama Desert
Takla Makan
Rub al-Khali

Dast-e-kavir
Dast-e-lut
Nubian Desert
Patagonian Desert
Great Sandy Desert
Simpson Desert
Great Victorian
Desert

Tropical grassland

It is also called
savannah, the
park land
topography or
big game
country
Located
between rain
forest and hot
desert

Tropical Grasslands
Llanos, Campos
S.Ame

Savannah -Africa

po
m
Ca
s

Tropical grassland
Moderate rainfall
clear dry-wet season
Tall grass elephant
grass, scanty large
trees, grass-fire in
dry season way of
controlling trees
Large carnivorous
animals

Tropical grassland
Acacia tress with
broad trunks
baoab trees and
bottle trees
To store water
Grass long roots,
remain dormant in
dry period
Australia Mallee,
Mulga, Spinifex
grasses

Tropical Grasslands
Tribes = Masai
tribe (kenya)
Pastoralist
Hausa and
Aibo tribes of
Nigeria

Q. Which one of the following

characteristics of climate of
Tropical Savannah region?
a) Rainfall throughout the year
b) Rainfall in winter only
c) An extremely short dry
season
d) A definite dry and wet
season

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2012

Temperate grasslands
Contine
nts
North
America
South
America
Central
Asia
South
Africa
Australia

Names
Prairies
Pampas
Steppe
Veldt
Downs

Temperate grasslands
Cooler and wetter
than Savannah
Under westerlies
Perfect grassland
no trees
Grass is very
nutritious

Truck-farming
Temperate grasslands
entirely converted into
agriculture.
Prairies: Truck-farming
large acres of
farmlands extensive
use of machinery High productivity per
person

Prairies, North America

Wheat, cotton and
Maize cultivation
USA:
Prairies: maize is fed
to animals
fattening slaughter
house near great
lake region

Steppe, Asia
Pustaz in
hungary
Wheat bowl of
the world
Black Earth
Sugar from
sugar beet

Pampas, South America

Livestock ranching
Alfalfa nutrious
grass
Argentina wheat
exports
Buenos Aires and
Montevideo Meat and dairy
exports

Downs, Australia
Australia:
sheep rearing,
meat
New Zealand:
DOW
NS

Canterbury
plains
Sheep rearing

Veldt, Africa
Limpo
po
river

Orang
e river

Veldt (Dutch word)

= field
Basins of Orange
river and river
Limpopo sheep
rearing, agora goat
Wool production

Tropical Monsoon
India, Thailand,
Cambodia,
Myanmar, Laos,
Vietnam,
Northern tip off
Australia
Eastern Brazil
Gulf of Guinea
coast and around
horn of Africa in
Africa

Tropical Monsoon
On shore trade wind
seasonal reversal of
winds
During summer, sun
move northward
With sun, LP ITCZ
also move
Thus, entire wind
system shift
northward

Tropical Monsoon

ITCZ

ITCZ

The region which was

under northern trade
winds, come under
southern trade winds
Northern trade winds
blow north to south, while
southern trade winds
blow south to north
it seems reversal of winds
in the region

Tropical Monsoon
Distinct wet and dry
season rainfall in
confined to 4
months vulnerable
to drought and flood
Similar to savannah
but wetter than
savannah

Tropical Monsoon
Tropical deciduous
forest distinct
autumn season
shedding of trees
Trees: Indian
subcontinent
Sal, Teak
(Myanmar Teak)
Hardwood

Tropical Monsoon
Intensive agriculture,
subsistence farming
High population
density, small land
holding
High productivity per
acre per person low
Crops: rice,
sugarcane, jute,
cotton, indigo, spices

Tropical Monsoon
Shifting cultivation/ slash
and burn cultivation/ Jhum
cultivation
forests are cut, burnt and
cultivated.
When soil fertility began to
decline, the land is
abandoned, and a new
patch of forest is burnt.
By the time abandoned land
regenerated for several
years until the next round of
cultivation.

Jhum cultivation
against
Deforestation
higher run-off of
rain water in hilly
areas -Water
scarcity during nonrainy days
loss of biodiversity

favour
Jhum uses natural cycle
of forest regeneration
(6-10 years)
Cause temporary loss
of forest patches
No use chemical
fertilizers or pesticides
+ diversified crops

Jhum cultivation
the dry the cut trees are dried under the sun- burn
the trees ashes of the burnt trees (Potash)
replenish the soil nutrients
The regenerating forest provides forest produce to
the people
Settled agriculture- monoculture plantation of
pineapple, rubber and oil palm cause permanent
loss of forest
Once monoculture adopted with chemical inputs, the
same land cannot be converted into natural forest

Different names of shifting cultivation

Country

Malaysia
Myanmar
Thailand
Philippines
Java
Shri Lanka
Africa

Term for
shifting
cultivation
Ladang
Taungya
Tamrai
Caingin
Humah
Chena
Milpa