CHAPTER 3

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF

RETAINING STRUCTURES
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lecture/week the student would be able to:
Describe

the purpose of retaining wall and its components (C03-PO4)

Understand and discuss different types of retaining earth structure (C03PO4)
Perform analysis and design for sheet pile wall (C03-PO4)

References:
a)

Das,B.M. (2007). Principles of Foundation

Engineering.Thomson

b)

Budhu,M. (2007). Soil Mechanics and Foundations.WILEY

c)

Craig, R.F. (2004). Craigs Soil Mechanics. Taylor & Francis.

d)

Thomlinson, M.J. (1995). Foundation Design &

Construction. Longman Scientific and Technical

Retaining Wall
3.1

Introduction
Retaining wall used to prevent the
retained material from assuming its

Facing unit
Reinforcement

natural slope:

3 basic components:
a) Backfill material granular material
Earth fill

Component of ERWall

b) Reinforcement geotextiles or
metal rods
c) Facing

3.2

Application Areas (BRIDGE WORKS)

Bridge abutment

Bridge abutment,
with piles bankseat

Application Areas (BRIDGE WORKS)

Bridge abutment and

support to bankseat

Sloping bridge abutment

Application Areas (BRIDGE WORKS)

ADVANTAGES:

Economic
May used in poor subsoil
Speed of erection high

Reinforced embankment
in place of viaduct

Application Areas (DAMS)

Reinforced earth dam

Reinforced soil structure

used to raise the height of an
existing dam

Application Areas (EMBANKMENT)

Reinforced embankment
Material : Geotextile or geogrid

Application Areas (EMBANKMENT)

Geocell mattress used to

increase embankment
stability

Application Areas (FOUNDATION)

WEAK SOIL
WEAK SOIL

Geogrid reinforcement of
subsoil beneath embankment

Stone columns formed from

geogrid cubes

Sheet Pile Wall

3.2

Sheet Pile
Flexible and are constructed using steel or thin concrete slabs or
wood.
Two(2) types of sheet pile :
a)
Cantilever sheet pile = used to support height of less than 3 m
= rely on passive soil resistance for their
stability
b)
Anchored sheet pile = support deep excavation and waterfront
structures
= rely on combination of anchors and
passive soil resistance

Types of rigid retaining wall

Types of flexible retaining wall

Cantilever Sheet Pile

3.2.1

Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall

Steel sheet piling driven into the ground for temporary works is
commonly used to support the vertical sides of excavation during
construction
To avoid internal proping or external anchoring, it is preferable if
the wall can be designed to act in the cantilever mode
Following completion of the below ground structure and
backfilling the sheet piles are usually removed
This type of wall should be limited to a maximum height 3-5 m
depending on the soil type and presence of water

Contiguous or secant bored pile walls and diaphragm wall are frequently
used in cantilever mode for permanent application such as for retaining
structures alongside urban highways, bridge abutments and for basement
walls.
Minimal vibration produced during boring so this method can be adopted for
walls close to existing structures

3.2.2

Analysis of Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall

Cantilever sheet pile wall are analysed by
assuming that rotation occurs at some
point O,just above the base of the wall
By assuming rotation at point O (above the
base) lateral pressure is passive behind
the wall and active in front of the wall
To simply design the passive
resistance, a force R is used at the point of
rotation O and moments about O are taken
for the active and passive thrust, Pa and
Pp
The depth is increased by 20% to 30% to

give embedment design, d

Pressure Distributions

Anchored Sheet Pile

3.2.2

ANCHORED sheet pile wall

Additional support to embedded walls is provided by a row of tiebacks or props near the top wall.

Tie backs are normally high tensile steel cables or rods,

anchored in the soil some distance behind the wall
Two methods to analyse anchored sheet pile wall:
a) free earth support method (frequently used)
b) fixed earth support method
The design of anchored sheet pile wall addresses:
a) embedded depth
b) Anchor load
c) maximum bending moment
The stability depends due to passive resistance developed in front
of the wall together with supporting forces in ties and props.

3.2.2

Free Earth Support Method

Assumption:
Depth of embedment below excavation
level is insufficient to produce fixity at
the lower end of the wall thus base of
wall free to rotate
No passive resistance to backward
movement at bottom
Active and Passive distribution are
static
Stability depends on passive
resistance in front wall

Free Earth Support Method

Example 1: Cantilever sheet-pile wall

A cantilever sheet-pile wall is to support the side of an excavation.
The depth of excavation is 3 m. The properties of soil are as
follow:
c = 0, =30o, =20 kN/m3
By using FOS on shear strength = 1.4 and
FOS on embedment=1.2, determine:
a.
b.

The safe driving depth

Maximum moment induced in the piling

Example 2: Anchored sheet pile

(free earth support method)
The anchored sheet pile shown below to be designed by the free earth support
method. The depth of excavation is 9m. The anchor will be installed at apoint 1.5m
below the top of the wall. Determine the required depth of penetration and the design
force for anchor.
Given:
Fs=1.5 ; Fd=1.2 , FT=2.0
c = 0, =28o, =20 kN/m3
1.5 m

CHAPTER 3
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
RETAINING STRUCTURES
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lecture/week the student would be able to:
Understand on braced excavation (C03-PO4)
Perform analysis and design forces for struts in braced excavation
(C03-PO4)

Braced Excavation
3.1

Introduction
Braced excavation is required when dealing with
construction of basements, bridge piers and abutments

The vertical faces of the cut need to be protected by

temporary bracing system (sheet pile) to avoid failure that may
be accompanied by considerable settlement or by bearing
capacity failure at nearby foundation

Interlocking sheet piles are driven to the soil before excavation. As

excavation proceeds, struts and wales (horizontal steel beam) are inserted
immediately after reaching the appropriate depth

3.2

Wall Displacement in Braced Excavation

The wall displacements before the top struts are
installed are usually very small but get larger as
the excavation gets deeper
The largest wall displacement occur at the base of
the excavation
Critical design element is when designing loads on
struts due to different lateral load at different depth

WALL DISPLACEMENT

Figure 3.1 : Distribution of displacement for Braced Excavation

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

DISTRIBUTION
3.3

Lateral Earth Pressure

Peck (1969) suggested using design pressure envelopes for braced
cuts in sand and clay

Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution for course grained soil

Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution for fine grained soil

QUESTION
Draw the pressure diagram. Determine the forces on the struts
for the braced excavation.
(The struts are placed 3 m center to center in the plan)

SOLUTION:

CHAPTER 3
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
RETAINING STRUCTURES
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lecture/week the student would be able to:
Understand

the construction methods for retaining

structures(C03-PO4)
Perform analysis and design for reinforced earth structures
(C03-PO4)
Understand and perform cofferdam design and analysis (C03PO4)

3.1

Construction Techniques
Hybrid Systems
Telescope Method
Sliding Method
Concertina Method

Concertina Method
Originally proposed by Vidal (1966), this method permits differential
settlement within the soil mass by the face structure closing in a
manner similar to a set of bellows or a concertina. This is the form of
construction most frequently used with geotextiles for steep slopes.

Telescope Method
In this system the deformations within the soil mass are
accommodated by the facing panels closing and moving forward an
amount equivalent to the internal deformations, Vidal (1978). This is
made possible by the individual facing units being held apart during
construction. Failure to provide a large enough gap can result in
damage to the facing panels.

Sliding Method
In the sliding method proposed by Jones (1978),
differential settlement and compaction within the soil
mass can be accommodated by permitting the
reinforcing elements to slide vertically relative to the
facing. Slideable attachments can be provided by
groves, slots, vertical poles, lugs or bolts. Facings made
of discrete elements, as with the telescope method, can
be used as can full height facings with a range of
architectural finishes.

Hybrid Systems
Reinforcement is used with conventional gravity systems to produce an
improved composite construction; an example is the tailed gabion, or
the Norwegian concrete block.

3.2

Construction Tolerances and Serviceability Limit

Table 4.1: Usually accepted tolerances for faces of retaining walls and abutments.
Location of plane structure

50 mm

Verticality

5 mm per metre height

(i.e. 40 mm per 8 m)

Bulging (vertical) or
Bowing (horizontal)

20 mm in 4.5 m template

Steps at joints

10 mm

Alignment along top

15 mm from reference
alignment

Table 4.2 Serviceability limits.

Limit on post construction internal strains

Structure

Strain percent

Bridge abutments

0.5

Walls

1.0

3.3

Principle of Earth Reinforced Earth

Vertical stress, v = z
Lateral stress, h = Ko v
According to Jacky (1944), for both
normally consolidated clays and
compacted soil,
Ko = 1 Sin ,
where = the angle of friction of the
soil.

z
H
T

Kaz

Rankine active
earth wedge
45o +
/2
Pa = active earth force
T = tension force in
reinforcement

Pa
H/
3

ka = 1- sin
1+sin
kp = 1+ sin
1-sin

3.4

Forces in Reinforcement Strip

Sh

Surcharged load, q

Ti K a Sv S h v

Facing unit

in kN

where

Reinforcement

therefore,

z
v i S vi q
Sv

Ti

Soil

ER Wall with pre-cast facing unit

unit

Ti K a ( zi q) S v S h
where zi = depth of strip i below the
ground level

3.4.1

The maximum Tension Line

The tensile force in a reinforcement strip varies. It generally has a low
(even a zero) value at the facing unit, reaches a maximum value a
short distance from the facing and then tends towards zero at the un
attached end.
Profile of maximum
tension line

Active
zone

The maximum tension line

Resistan
t
zone

3.4.2

Failure of a reinforcing element

a) Tensile failure (breakage)
The ultimate resistance of a reinforcing element to an axial tensile
stress is equal to the ultimate axial tensile stress that the material can
withstand, fy, time the cross sectional area of the rectangular strip.
Rt = fy . w . t
where w = width of reinforcing element
t = thickness of reinforcing element
fy = yield tensile strength of tie material

b) Bond Failure
For a reinforcing element the bond resistance between it and the soil
will be provided by frictional resistance
Frictional resistance,
Fr = 2 zi w l
where w = width of strip
l = length of strip

Note :
Rectangular strip, Fr = 2 zi w l
Round bar (rod),

Fr = zi d l ( where d = diameter of bar)

Sheet,

Fr = 2 zi l

3.5

Design Criteria

DESIGN PRINCIPLE
ERW

INTERNAL STABILITY

EXTERNAL STABILITY

Tensile Failure
Bond Failure

Sliding
Overturning
Bearing Capacity

3.5.1

Internal Stability
a) FOS against breakage = The yield strength of each tie

The m aximum force in any tie =

=
b) FOS against pull-out

fy w t
Ka v Sv Sh

The m aximum friction force

The m aximum force in any tie

=
where

= coefficient of friction soil

tie
= 0.5 tan

OR
where

2 v w l
Ka v Sv Sh

2 v tan w l
Ka v Sv Sh

= 2
3

Rt
Ti

Fr
Ti

c)

Determination of thickness
t design

FOS (b) Ka v Sv Sh
fy w

t corrosion

rate of corrosion x design life

(eg. 0.002mm/yr) x (50 yrs)

t required

= t design + t corrosion
t use > t required

d)

Determination of required length of metal strip

45o

lr

45o

lr = length of metal strip within Rankines failure

wedge
le

Rankine active wedge

le = the effective length of reinforcement