Calculuswhat is it good for?

Traditional mathematics (algebra,

geometry, and trigonometry or A/G/T)
form the foundation for understanding.
However, they generally focus on
situations where changes occur at
constant rates. These problems are rarely
seen outside a textbook. Which sparks
the inevitable question: When am I ever
going to use this?

The Mathematical Showdown

A/G/T

Slopes of Lines
Constant Speeds
and Motion
Areas of Regular
Polygonal Figures
More regular
less realistic

Calculus

Slopes of Curves
Varying Speeds and
Motion
Areas of Irregular
Figures
Less regular
more realistic

The Three Big Ideas of Calculus

The Derivative
The Limit
The Integral

Well begin with the concept of

the limit. It is the linchpin that
connects the other two big
ideas of calculus.
First, we need to review a few of
those A/G/T concepts.

Vocabulary:
EVALUATEsubstitute a value for the
variable and find the final amount (when
possible)
SOLUTIONa number or group of
numbers that make a problem true; this
would be the inputs paired with the outputs
FUNCTIONa mathematical pattern
where you have exactly one output for
each input

A function is basically like a machine. Thats

why a machine that doesnt work is
malfunctioning. Think of it like this

1, 2, 3, 4, 5
f ( x ) = 10x

Terms Related To Functions

Function Tables
Some people use a horizontal table to
organize a function while other people use a
vertical table.
To make graphing easier, most people replace
the f(x) with y when they prepare to graph.
You may do this in calculus as well. Think of
the output f(x) as a y-coordinate.

The Inputs

2 1 0 -1 -2

f(x)
The Outputs

x
2
1
0
-1
-2

f(x)

The Inputs
Horizontal

2 1 0 -1 -2

y
The Outputs
Vertical

x
2
1
0
-1
-2

Sample #1:
y=x3

We solve this as follows

y=x3
x

-1 -2

-1 -2 -3 -4 -5

Now, you may see why

some people prefer to
write function tables on
a VERTICAL table

y=x3
(
(
(
(
(

x
2
1
0
-1
-2

(2, -1)

y 2 right, 1 down
-1 )
-2 )
-3 )
-4 )
-5 )

Sample #1:
y=x3

Now, we need to graph it

y=x3

Sample #2:
y = 3x

Graph it

y = 3x

Sample #3:
y = 3x 1

Graph it

y = 3x 1

A set of ordered pairs may be

graphed.
However, not all graphs represent
functions.
Here is an easy way to check a
relation to see if it is a function...

THE VERTICAL LINE TEST FOR A

FUNCTION:
1.Graph the equation (use a T-chart of x-values and y-values or
any other appropriate method).
2.Imagine a vertical line on that graphsome people even hold a
pencil to represent the line.
3.Imagine sliding or rolling that line to the left and to the right.
4.If the line intersects the graph in AT MOST one point EVER,
then it is a function.

y = 3x 1

Congratulationsits a function!

y=x 1
2

Congratulationsits a function!

y=x 1
2

Awwwwtoo bad!

That may help you on future

assignments. Of course, your other
A/G/T techniques
(factoring, slope-intercept form, etc.)
will be helpful as well.
Now, consider the following function
as we move into the concept of the
limit

What is the domain of this

function?

16 x
f ( x)
4 x

16 x
(4 x)(4 x)
f ( x)

4 x
4 x
4 x
2

16 x
(4 x)(4 x)
f ( x)

4 x
4 x
4 x
2

16 x
(4 x)(4 x)
f ( x)

4 x
4 x
4 x
2

Well, all real numbers should

work except x = 4

16 x
(4 x)(4 x)
f ( x)

4 x
4 x
4 x
2

Now, lets make a table for it

x

f(x)

4.1

8.1

4.01

8.01

4.001

8.001

undefined

3.999

7.999

3.99

7.99

3.9

7.9

D: {x , x 4}
Notice as x gets
closer to 4, the
f(x) gets closer to 8.
Hmmmm
This may prove
useful soon.

And the graph which includes

a whole where it is undefined
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-1 0

-2
-3
-4

Now, were ready to tackle limits!

In calculus, we move beyond the function.

We focus on the limits of these functions.
Imagine running the graph of a function
under a microscope

that is what happens when you search for

the limit of a function.

Big Ideas #2The Limit

a way to zoom in on the graph of
a curve until it seems straight
links the other two big ideas (the
derivative and the integral)
may be found using evaluation, the
graph, or the table

Symbolically Speaking:
The limit of a function
describes the behavior of
the function as the input

lim f(x)
x

approaches

a particular value

The limit of a function

describes the behavior of the function
as the input approaches a particular
value
x

lim f(x) = L
c

We say this as the limit of f(x) as x

approaches c is L.

lim f(x) = L
c

Remembering that x is the input

and f(x) is the output

As the input approaches c

(without having to equal c)

Remembering that x is the input

and f(x) is the output
L
c

The output approaches a height L

In other word, if you put c into the function,

then you get L out. You arrive at point (c, L).

(c, L)
c

This can be confirmed by the table or

the graph (TRACE feature)

GET IT?
As the x approaches c on the x-axis,
the height approaches L on the y-axis
Th
eL
im

it

(c, L)
c

Basically, you substitute for x to

find what height the graph has
as you approach a particular
location on the x-axis.
Of course, just like a maximum
speed limit, you approach but
you do not always reach that
value (*cough* as if *cough*).

Lets try direct substitution with an actual

functionfind the limit of this function as
x approaches 2:
f(x) = 3x + 1
Evaluate
So

x
x
x

lim f(x) = L
c

lim (3x + 1) = ?
2

lim (32 + 1) = ?
2

f(x) using 2

Look at the table and then the graph

(using TRACE if necessary) for this
same function
f(x) = 3x + 1
Youll still find that as you approach 2,
the function becomes 7youre going
towards the point (2, 7).

Try this on-screen quiz for practice

1)
x

lim

(5x) = ?

10

2)

lim (2x 5) = ?
4

31

3)

2
(
2
x
4x + 1) = ?
lim

Your text should contain a list of

common patterns known as the
Rules of Limits
It behooves us to memorize
those because they are great
timesavers.
For example

The limit of a constant is just

that constant. So

lim

97

6 =6

These rules are quite helpful

and affect calculations later in
the course.

Well, you know they cant ALL be THAT

easyright?
Try to find the limit of this function as x
approaches 4

x
16
f (x)
4 x

Notice any complications? Think

back to earlier in the lesson

All real numbers should work

except x = 4

16 x
(4 x)(4 x)
f ( x)

4 x
4 x
4 x
2

Of course, that is EXACTLY

where we need to evaluate it!

Try the table using c = 4

Limit
from
the
left
(x<c)

x=c
Limit
from
the
right
(x>c)

f(x)

4.1

8.1

4.01

8.01

4.001

8.001

undefined

3.999

7.999

3.99

7.99

3.9

7.9

Limit
from
the
left
(x<c)

x=c

Limit
from
the
right
(x>c)

5 4 3

Try the graph

12
11

x=c

Limit
from
the
left
(x<c)

10
9
8

Limit
from
the
right
(x>c)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-1 0

-2
-3
-4

Theres a hole in the graph!

Sometimes, we cannot find the limit

using direct substitution, the table, or the
graph.
If you have an undefined expression
such as

0
0

then try factoring and simplifying to get

an expression that you can evaluate with
direct substitution.

Actually, the earlier work below

is useful

16 x
(4 x)(4 x)
f ( x)

4 x
4 x
4 x
2

We simplified the functionso,

just evaluate the limit with the
simplified version!

Heres how to tackle that problem

lim

16 x
4 x

undef

=?

substitution

lim f(4 x) = ?

lim f(4 x) = ?

BEWARE: if you graph that

function
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5

x=4

4
3
2
1
0

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-1 0

-2
-3
-4

there is still a hole at x = 4 !

Lets try another one that is not

so easy initially

lim

x 2 = ?
x4

Direct substitution wont do it.

Factoring doesnt look like a likely

candidate either. Because of the radical,
try finding the conjugate of the part that
has the radical.

x 2

x+ 2

x4

x+ 2
multiplying by 1

The conjugate has

the same terms but
opposite operation

/n = 1so, placing
the conjugate over
itself is like
multiplying by 1

This produces the following result

x 2

x4

x+ 2

x 4

x + 2 (x 4)( x + 2)

Finallysomething that looks useful

x 2

x4

x+ 2

x 4

x + 2 (x 4)( x + 2)

Basically, were finding

lim

=?

x+2

Now, we can use direct substitution

to find the limit to be 1/4

Try this on-screen quiz for practice

1)
x

2)

lim

lim

x 4 =?
2

x+2
x 4 =?
2

x+2

1
by direct
substitution
4
by factoring
and
substituting

Thats still not TOO bad.

Sometimes, you do not need the general
limit. You may need the limits as you
approach from each particular
direction. These are one-sided limits.
This was implied earlier in the lesson
remember this graph?

You may find the limit from each

side of the c-value.
12
11

x=c

Limit
from
the
left
(x<c)

10
9
8

Limit
from
the
right
(x>c)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

-1 0

-2
-3
-4

The hole at x = c divides the graph into

two pieces!

You need one-sided limits when you

encounter a piecewise function
(a function where each part of the
domain has its own function to
evaluate) as seen below
Limit
from
the
left
(x<c)

Limit
from
the
right
(x>c)

Piecewise functions occur in the real

world when you examine a situation
where different rules apply for different
groups, conditions, or amounts.
Some examples include income tax
brackets, commission rates, pay scales
that incorporate experience and/or
training, and suggested speed limits based
on weather/road conditions.

Consider the following piecewise

function
f (x) =

x+1

if x 3

8 2x

if x > 3

You essentially have a limit for each part of

the function. One approaches from the
positive side (the right) and one approaches
from the negative side (the left).

These are known as one-sided limits (as we saw

earlier comparing the number line, the table,
and the graph).

f (x) =

x+1

if x 3

8 2x

if x > 3

Find the limits approaching from the left and

from the right separatelyif the limit is the
same for each separate piece, then you have
the limit for the overall function.

For the left or negative approach,

youll evaluate the first piece
f (x) =

x+1

if x 3

8 2x

if x > 3

This is noted as follows

This is
NOT 3

lim (x + 1) =
x3

For the right or positive approach,

youll evaluate the second piece

f (x) =

x+1

if x 3

8 2x

if x > 3

This is noted as follows

This is
STILL 3

lim (8 2x) =
x3+

What is the limit as this piecewise

function approaches 3?
4 from the left and 2 from the right

f (x) =

lim f(x)
3

x+1

if x 3

8 2x

if x > 3

does not exist (D.N.E.)

DEFINITION OF A LIMIT:
Let f be a function and let c be a
real number.
x

lim f(x)
c

exists if and only if

both of the one-sided
limits exist and equal
the same number L.

Lets consider two more situations:

infinite limits and limits of
functions containing two variables
Consider these rational functions
f (x) =

1
2 x

f (x) =

1
2
( x 3)

Try graphing each individually. You may

also choose to examine the table of values.

For the first function, find the limit

as the function approaches 2
f (x) =

1
2 x

Find the limits as

x 2 and x 2+

In the graph, as x 2 , the curve +

In the graph, as x 2+ , the curve
The two one-sided limits do not agree; limit D.N.E.

For the second function, find the limit

as the function approaches 3

f (x) =

1
2
( x 3)

Find the limits

as x 3
and x 3+

In the graph, as x 3 , the curve +

In the graph, as x 3+ , the curve +
The two one-sided limits agree; however, since
is not an actual number, the limit D.N.E.

Did that soak in?

The first rational function had an
asymptote at x = 2.
The functions graph veered off as you
approached 2 along the x-axis.
Thus, the function does not have a limit
because it doesnt eventually arrive at a
common point (c, L).

The second rational function had an

asymptote at x = 3.
The functions graph approached the
asymptote as you approached 3 along the
x-axis. However, the two halves of the
graph can never touch the asymptote
BECAUSE its an ASYMPTOTE.
Thus, the function does not have a limit
because it doesnt eventually arrive at a
common point (c, L).

Consider the following function

f (x) = 3x2 + 5xh + 1

You essentially have a limit for each variable
within the function. The notation in the
problem will tell you which variable to
evaluate.
3x2 + 1

lim f(x) =
0

The Home Stretch:

Continuity

In A/G/T situations, data is generally

classified as discrete or continuous.
Discrete data represents distinct, separated
items.
A population may grow from 300 people
to 320 people. Even though I did not
count them moment by moment, the
population was never 300 , 308.25, or
315.9 people.

Continuous data uses values that progress

through the real numbers or through some
specified range of values.
The temperature may decrease from 70 to
65. It had to pass through the intermittent
temperaturesincluding 68 , 66.9,
65.127even if I did not observe or
measure that change.

Consequently, a continuous function is

essentially a function with no gaps in it.
You can trace its graph without lifting your
pencil from the paper. Now, lets expand
that idea.
All polynomial functions are continuous
everywhere. A function that is continuous
over its entire domain is one that only has
gaps where the function is undefined.

Notice that a continuous function must be

continuous over its entire domain (the values
that you plan to allow as inputs)NOT for all
real numbers.
For example, a tire may be tested. It falls apart
at 375 F. However, the customer does not plan
to live at that temperature.
As far as the customer is concerned, the tires
performance is continuous.
Consider the following graphs

No gaps where defined?

Continuous

No gaps where defined?

Continuous

No gaps where defined?

You got dissed

by an infinite
discontinuity!

Ive Got Holes

Ive Got Holes
Hopefully, you are getting the connection
between the concepts of continuity and limits.
Just when you thought it was safe to be logical
about all of this, there is a critical exception that
affects the rest of calculus. Its all about the
holes in the graph.
Examine the following graphs

No gaps where defined?

You got dissed

by a jump
discontinuity!

Luda Says:
Remember the Definition of
a Limit
Even though the function has outputs for every
input, it is clearly not continuous because of the
hole in the graph.
The left and right portions of the graph are
veering away from one another. By definition,
it does not have a limit because two one-sided
limits do not approach a particular value.

No gaps where defined?

Well
my
graph is
covered
with
holes

Superman Says:
Beware of
Holes!
Even though the function has a hole in the
graph, it does have a limit. The two pieces
would connect if the hole were filled. Think of
Superman serving as a rail for the train.
By definition, the two one-sided limits are
approaching a single value. Therefore, the limit
is the height of the hole.

No gaps where defined?

What?
What?
What?

You got dissed

by an oscillating
function!

Not a fan of the limits?

Aaarrrgggh! Does it ever end?

Well, the graphs of oscillating functions (like
sine and cosine waves) are periodic. They
repeat a set of values. They do not approach
one given value. Therefore, they have no limit.

DEFINITION OF A CONTINUOUS
FUNCTION:
A function f is continuous at a value c
if and only if:
1) f (c) is defined
2) both of the one-sided limits exist and agree
3) the limit L and the value at c agree.

As if thats not enough

First, you have your continuous functions
which have limits.
Next, you have oscillating functions which do
not have limits.
Then, you have your discontinuities
removable (hole) discontinuity limit,
infinite discontinuity no limit,
and
jump discontinuity no limit.

There is a great mnemonic that ties together

most of what weve done today: LiMiL 3
Simply change the T in LiMiT to an L
and you have LiMiL. Each L reminds us
about limits. The M reminds us about slope.
Each i reminds us about discontinuities (like
the dot of the i). There are 3 things to
remember about each letter in LiMiL.
Heres what LiMiL helps you remember

3 parts to the
definition of a
limit (left exists;
right exists; both
agree)

3 parts to the
definition of
continuity (defined at
c; left and right exist
and agree; limit and
value at c agree)

LiMiL 3

3 cases where a limit fails

(infinite discontinuity,
jump discontinuity, and
oscillating function)

3 cases where a
derivative fails to
exist (any
discontinuity; a
cusp; a vertical
tangentwell
learn about these
later)

3 types of discontinuity
(hole/removable discontinuity,
infinite discontinuity, and jump
discontinuityHIJ)

Honestly, you have now made it through one of

the most ambiguous and confusing sections of
calculus. For most folks, they have to take a lot
of this on faith.
So, hear me now and believe me later

Limits WILL make sense.

THE END