Workshop On Power Transformers 1

WORKSHOP ON POWER TRANSFORMERS
PRINCPLES,APPLICATIONS,TESTING AND
COMMISSIONING
HELD AT PROFESSIONAL SKILLS
TRAINING CENTRE, KAINJI
FROM 10 -14TH MARCH, 2008
BY
PROTECTION,CONTROL AND
METERING
08/07/15
Topics To Be Covered
Transformer Principles
Transformers
Right-Hand Rule
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Induction
Left-Hand Rule
Turns Ratio
Transformer Losses
Transformer Types
08/07/15
(Contd)
Tap Changers
Off-Load Tap Changer
On-Load Tap Changer
Phase Angle Control
Transformer Connections
Single-Phase Circuits
Two-Phase Circuits
Three-Phase Circuits
08/07/15
Topics To Be Covered (Contd)
Transformer Maintenance
Insulation (AC Resistance) Testing
High Potential Testing
Turns Ratio Testing
Polarity Testing
Power Factor (Loss Factor) Testing
Excitation Current
DC Winding Resistance
Polarization Index test
Insulating Fluid Dielectric
Dissolved Gas Analysis
08/07/15
(Contd)
Transformer and Relaying

Transformer Faults
Differential Relaying (Normal Load,
External Faults, Internal Faults
08/07/15
Introduction
The transformer is a static electric device,

consisting of a winding, or two or more
coupled windings, with or without a
magnetic core.
It transfers power by electromagnetic

induction between the circuits at the same
frequency, but usually at changed values
of voltage and current (either serving as
step-up or step-down function).
08/07/15
Introduction (Contd)
The
generation of electricity or voltage

requires motion between a magnetic
field and conductors.
In
power plants, this motion is supplied

by moving the wires, by means of
turbines, through a fixed (or DC)
magnetic field.
08/07/15
Introduction (Contd)
A transformer,
however, depends on a
Constantly changing magnetic field to
transmit power.
The wires are fixed, and the magnetic
field moves. This continual movement
of oscillating magnetism is set up by the
50 Hz AC power supply.
08/07/15
First Law of Magnetics

Shortly
after, it was discovered that a

looped wire produces a more intense
magnetic field or flux.
Both of the foregoing progressive steps
illustrate the First Law of Magnetic-a
current-carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field.
08/07/15
Right-Hand Thumb Rule
Later, the direction of the magnetic field

produced by a current-carrying was
determined by the so-called Right-Hand
Thumb Rule.
If the wire is gripped by the right hand such
that the thumb of the right hand points in the
direction of the current, then the fingers will
point to the direction of the magnetic field.
08/07/15
Origin of Simple
Electromagnet
When
a current-carrying coil is wrapped

around a bar of iron, the magnetic field
becomes still more intense.
Thus a simple electomagnet is a
current-carrying coil of wire with an iron
core.
08/07/15
Second Law of Magnetics

The
electromagnet illustrates the

Second Law of Magnetics
A current-carrying conductor
surrounding a stationary magnetic field
produces an alternating voltage
08/07/15
Magnetic Flux Density

Magnet
density flux may be thought of

as an amount of magnetic field passing
through an area.
08/07/15
Principle of Electromagnetic
Between
1831 and 1832, Sir Michael

Faraday at the Royal Institution in
London and Joseph Henry at the
Albany Academy in the USA,
independently discovered the principle
of electromagnetic induction by
combining the two basic laws of
magnetics.
08/07/15
Principle of Electromagnetic
Induction (Contd)
Whenever
a conductor moves relative

to a magnetic field, electric potential or
voltage, and therefore current, is
induced in the conductor.
In other words, electric potential is
induced in a conductor whenever flux
through the conductor changes.
08/07/15
Lenzs Law
The
average induced electric potential,

regardless of how it is produced, is
proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkage,
linkage and is given by Lenz as:
=-N d
dt
08/07/15
LENZS LAW (Contd)

The
instantaneous induced
electromotive force (emf) acts in a way
to oppose the flux inducing it.
This is indicated by the minus sign in
the equation.
=-N d
dt
08/07/15
Transformer major Parts

The
magnetic circuit
The windings (primary and secondary,
and tertiary)
Solid insulation materials of the
windings and core
Tank enclosure
08/07/15
Major Parts of Transformer

(Contd)
Bushings
and leads
Coolants (Insulants) and cooling
arrangement
Taps and tap-changing arrangement
Protective gear, circuit breakers,
protective relays
Other auxiliary equipment
08/07/15
Magnetic Circuit
The
core, a magnetic circuit with a

clamping structure, is the part of the
transformer in which a magnetic field
oscillates
The metallic composition of the core is
a special high grade silicon sheet steel.
A typical sheet of steel is 0.014 inches
(0.3mm) thick.
08/07/15
Magnetic Circuit (Contd)

These sheets are laminated into sections that
are several inches wide.
These core laminations help reduce eddy
currents or currents induced in the iron parts
of the unit.
Each lamination in turn is coated with
insulating material. This coating helps
prevent magnetic losses and reduces heating
losses
08/07/15
Windings
The primary and secondary windings include
clamping arrangements.
There are four types of coils or windings used
on core-type transformers, these having the
following designations:
Spiral type
Crossover type
Helical type
Continuous disc type
08/07/15
Tank Enclosure and Cooling

surfaces
The
tank contains the transformer

together with cooling surface and
coolant.
It serves as a surface to radiate heat to
the surrounding air.
For self-cooled transformers, the main
types of tanks in modern use are.
08/07/15
Tank Types
Plain
sheet steel
Boiler plate with external cooling tubes
Radiator tanks
Tanks with separate coolers
08/07/15
Bushings
Bushings
are usually made of porcelain

The inside of the bushing may be oil,
paper, epoxy, or fiber glass.
Bushings serve to insulate the primary
and secondary windings from the tank
(ground).
08/07/15
Insulants or Coolants
Air,
gas, oil, or synthetic liquid may be

used.
08/07/15
Tap-Changing Arrangement
Tappings
can be used for the following

purposes.
Primary tappings to vary the primary
voltage
Secondary tappings to vary the
secondary voltage
Primary tappings to compensate for
variations in the primary voltage
08/07/15
Insulation System
Insulation
system is made up of
Liquid coolant
Solid insulating materials
The life of the transformer depends
primarily on the life of this insulation
08/07/15
Principle of Operation
For the purposes of understanding the main
principle of operation of transformers, a twowinding transformer would be considered.
In its simplest form, the two-winding
transformer consists of two coils of wire
primary P and secondary S. Insulated from
each other and wound on a common iron core
The core may take one of many forms, such
as a toroid or a rectangular frame.
08/07/15
Diagram of Transformer
Laminated core
Laminated core
E2
V1
E1
V2
Mutual or useful
Flux
08/07/15
(Contd)
Each
of the coils P and S is connected

to an external circuit
The coil P, referred to as the primary
windings, is connected to an electrical
source, an AC supply whose voltage or
current varies with time.
08/07/15
(Contd)
In
line with Faradays observation, the

Alternating primary current which flows
in the primary windings P generates an
alternating magnetic flux, known as
useful or mutual flux
The mutual flux links or cuts not only
the primary windings P but also the
secondary windings S.
08/07/15
(Contd)
Consequently,
the generated flux

linkage (product of flux and number of
turns, = N) induces an alternating
emf in the secondary windings.
Because the secondary coil is in circuit,
it will also carry a time-varying current,
the secondary current.
08/07/15
(Colntd)
This
secondary current will also

contribute to the magnetic field, so that
the total magnetic field is created by
contributions from both currents.
The two coils are thus said to be
magnetically or inductively coupled
08/07/15
Basic Transformer Relationships
In considering the basic theory, we would be

making a few assumptions.
Firstly, if the applied or source voltage to the
primary windings is sinusoidal, it is assumed that
the emf induced in the secondary windings is also
sinusoidal.
Secondly, we will also assume that all the flux
generated by each current links both primary and
secondary coils that is, the flux linking each coil
is the same, so that there is no flux leakage.
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
Relationship (Contd)
Since
the flux varies sinusoidally, we

have for the flux at any instant.
=
max sin t
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
Relationships (Contd)
Hence
the instantaneous emf e2

induced in the secondary coil of N2
turns linked by this flux is given by:
2m = -rate of change of flux linkage
= - d [N2]
dt
= - max N2 cost
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
The
maximum value of the induced emf

e2 is thus:
E2max = max N2
= 2 max N2
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
The
r.m.s. value of the secondary

voltage can be obtained from the
maximum value as:
E2 = E2max = 2 max N2
2
2
= 4.44 max N2
= 4.44 Bmax A N2
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
Now
due to the effect of mutual

inductance, the same flux links with the
primary winding also, and so an
instantaneous e.m.f is also induced in
the primary.
Its value is give by the corresponding
equation:
e1 = - m N1 cos t
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
v1 = - e1 =- m N1 cos t
= m N1 sin (t + 900)
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
It
can be seen that the supply voltage

leads the induced magnetic flux by 90
degrees.
The induced voltages e1 and e2 in the
primary and secondary respectively are
represented by the equations:
e1 = - E1max cost = E1max sin (t 90o)
e2 = - E2max cost = E2max sin (t 90o)
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
The
above equations show that the two

induced voltages are in phase
opposition to the supply voltage of
equation.
To obtain the r.m.s. value of the supply
voltage, we have
V1 = E1max = max N1 = 4.44 max N1
2
08/07/15
Basic Transformer
Since
there are no voltage loss across

the windings, the primary induced emf
is equal to the supply voltage in
magnitude, thus E1 = V1.
Hence
E1 = 4.44 max N1 = 4.44 Bmax A N1
08/07/15
Transformation or Turns Ratio

Combining
the equations and, we

obtain the transformation or turns
ration:
E2 = N2 = n or E2 = nE1
E1
N1
08/07/15
Operation On No-Load
A transformer
is said to be operated on
no-load when the secondary winding is
open-circuited.
The secondary current is consequently
zero and it is clear that the secondary
winding can have no effect whatsoever
on the magnetic flux in the core or the
current in the primary.
08/07/15
Phasor Diagram of
Transformer On No-Load
10
AC
E1
V1= - E1
E2
Open end
10
10
10
08/07/15
Components Of No-Load Current

The no-load current has two components,
The reactive or magnetizing component
The active or power component,
The No-load current services two functions:
The magnetizing component is needed to
produce the m.m.f. (mmf = N.I) necessary to
generate the flux mutual or useful
08/07/15
Components Of No-Load
Current (Contd)
The
active or power component is

needed to convey the power necessary
to supply the core losses resulting from
the alternating magnetization.
The core losses are of two types,
namely, hysteresis and eddy-current
losses.
08/07/15
Components Of No-Load
Current (Contd)
The
active and magnetizing

components and of the no-load current
can be calculated from the no-load
phasor diagram.
08/07/15
I w = I 0 cos
I = I 0 sin
Operation Under Load

10
I1
I1
Io
V1
Ro
I2
V1
V1
I
E1
E2
Z 2 = R + X2
I1
10
2
I2
08/07/15
E2
Operation Under Lod

(Contd)
When a load is connected to the secondary
side, a current flows due to the induced
voltage, and sets up a secondary mmf
This mmf produces a secondary flux 2 that
has the same magnetic path as and in the
opposite direction to the useful flux originally
set up in the primary due to the no-load
current, and links with the primary winding.
This secondary flux 2 tends to have a
demagnetizing effect to reduce the mutual.
08/07/15

(Contd)
But
the slightest decrease in the mutual

flux due to the secondary current would
cause a corresponding decrease in the
primary induced voltage.
If the applied voltage, however, is
constant, then the primary induced emf
and thus mutual flux in the core must
also remain constant.
08/07/15
Current Transformation Ratio

This
can happen, only when the primary

draws more current from the source to
neutralize the demagnetizing effect of
the mmf.
Thus the load current causes the
primary to take more current in addition
to the no-load current such that
N1I1= N2I2 or
I1 =
I2
08/07/15
N2
N1

(Contd)
This component of the primary current which
neutralizes the demagnetizing effect is
termed the load component of the primary
current and is drawn opposite to the load
current in the phasor diagram.
The total primary current is thus the phasor
sum of the no-load current and the load
component
I1= I0 + I1
08/07/15
Voltage Regulation
By voltage regulation, we are referring to
measures to ensure that voltage variation at
the secondary terminals is reduced to
practically acceptable limits
The voltage regulation V.R. is defined as the
change in secondary terminal voltage
expressed as a percentage (or p.u.) of the
secondary rated voltage under no-load
conditions:
08/07/15
Voltage Regulation (Contd)
V.R. = No-load sec.Vol- Full-load sec.Vol

No-load sec.Vol
=
E2 V2
E2
08/07/15
Voltage Regulation in Terms of

Primary Winding Parameters
Consider
the equivalent circuit referred

to the primary and the phasor diagram
for a lagging (inductive) load.
I1
R1
V1
08/07/15
N1
E1
E2
V2
Corresponding Vector
Diagram
V1
/AE,B =
11X1
11Z1
/V,E,B = 2
B
11R1
-1
2
E1
2
o
12
08/07/15
E2
/V,E,A = (1 2)
Calculation of VR
From the phasor diagram,

V12 = (E1 + E1A)2 + (V1A)2
But V1A is negligible compare to (E1+E1A)

V 1 = E 1+ E 1 A
V1 - E 1 = E 1A
V1 - E 1 = E 1A
V
08/07/15
V1
= V . R.
Calculation of VR (Contd)
V.R. = E1A
F1
= I1Ze1cos ( e1 - 2)
F1
= I1Ze1
V1
= 11
V1
V.R. = 11
08/07/15
V1
[cos e1cos 2 + sin e1sin 2]
[cos e1cos 2 + Z e1 sin e1sin 2]

[R e1cos 2 + X e1 sin 2]
General Equation of VR
The
V.R. could also be expressed in

terms of the equivalent secondary values.
And so more generally, the voltage
regulation could be expressed as
I
V.R.= [Recos+Xesin ]
V
08/07/15
Transformer Losses
The losses in the transformer could be
classified into two, namely,
Core or iron losses and
Copper losses though these amount to only a
small portion of the total input power (1% to
15%)
Since the losses in a transformer are very low
compared with the output, the efficiency is very
high, varying from 85% to 99% (the larger the
transformer the higher the
08/07/15
Iron Losses
The
iron losses are due to hysteresis

and eddy current losses in the core of
the transformer.
For a better understanding of the iron
losses, consider briefly how these
losses occur in the core.
08/07/15
Hysteresis Loss
The alternating induced flux in the core
causes an alternating magnetizations of the
core at a frequency of the time-changing
magnetic flux.
These alternate cycles of magnetization can
be represented by the so-called hysteresis
loop on a B-H curve. The iron subsequently
experiences hysteresis losses. The B-H
curve is shown below
08/07/15
Hysteresis Loop
B
R
C
Saturation
Normal
Magnetization
curve
N1
H=
I
08/07/15
Steinmetz Empirical Formula

for Hysteresis Loss
The magnitude of the hysteresis loss is
dependent on the grade of the ferromagnetic
material used for the core.
It is also proportional to the frequency. If Cc
is the volume of the core, the hysteresis loss
is obtained by the Steinmetz empirical
formular
Phys = KhVcf Bm1.6
08/07/15
Eddy-Current Loss
Since the iron is electrically conducting, a
solid core in the presence of an induced emf
would constitute electrical paths of very low
resistance and consequently currents would
circulate within the core.
These circulating currents inside the solid
conducting core, arising out of the induced
emf, are referred to as eddy-currents.
08/07/15
Eddy-Current Loss
These eddy-currents result in so-called eddycurrent loss, and produces heat which lowers
the efficiency and raises the temperature of
the windings, lowering its output capacity.
In practice, however, the effects of the eddycurrents are greatly reduced through a
process of lamination of the core.
08/07/15
Formula For Eddy-Current

Loss
The eddy-current power loss is proportional
To the square of the cross-sectional area normal to
the direction of the field,
The square of the maximum flux density,
The square of the frequency and
Inversely proportional to the resistively of the
ferromagnetic material from which the core is
made
P eddy =
K eddy 2 f 2 Bm2
P
08/07/15
Tests Performed on
Transformer
Two main tests known as the
Open-Circuit (No-Load) and
Short-Circuit Tests
These tests are performed to determine the
Voltage regulation V.R.,
The efficiency n
And other equivalent circuit parameters of the
transformer without actually loading it.
08/07/15
Open-Circuit Test
Wattmeter
A
C.C
V.C
A2
V
VARIAC
08/07/15
Open-Circuit Test (Contd)

The
secondary is left open

And a rated or full-load voltage is
applied through a VARIAC to the
primary of the transformer.
The following measurements are made:
08/07/15
Open-Circuit TestMeasurements
The ammeter measures the no-load current in
the primary, which is about 2.5% the rated or
full-load current.
The voltmeter measures the rated or full-load
voltage.
The wattmeter measures the open-circuit
power. Since the secondary current is zero,
the only copper losses are due to the no-load
current in the primary.
08/07/15
Open-Circuit Test Calculations

No-Load p.f. = cos 0 = P x
V x I0
I w = Io cos o
Re = Voc = Voc
Ic
Iccos o
08/07/15
:
:
I = Io sin o
X = Voc = Voc
Ic Iccos o
Short-Circuit Test
Wattmeter
A1
C.C
V.C
VARIAC
08/07/15
A2
Short-Circuit Test (Contd)

The
secondary of the transformer is

shorted through an ammeter
And a reduced voltage is applied
through a VARIAC to the primary of the
transformer until the rated or full-load
current flows in the primary
08/07/15
Short-Circuit Test Measurements

The following measurements are made:
The ammeters A1 and A2 measure the primary
and secondary currents respectively.
The voltmeter measures the short-circuit
voltage.
The wattmeter measures the short-circuit
power. This gives the full-load copper losses, if
the currents flowing in the primary and
secondary are rated or full-load currents.
These are obtained by adjusting the variac.
08/07/15
Short-Circuit Test Calculations

Short-circuit p.f. = cossc =
Psc
V sc I sc
Rel = Psc ; Zel =Vsc

I2sc
Isc
08/07/15
Xel = Z2el-R2el
Short-Circuit Test-Calculation
The
V.R. of the transformer can be

calculated from the short-circuit
measurements.
V.R. = I1 Z e1 cos (sc-2)
V1
08/07/15
Transformer Design
The
outstanding features of transformer

design which should be carefully
considered may be summarized as
follows:
Reliability
Maximum allowable losses (Iron and
Copper Losses)
Impedance.
08/07/15
Transformer Design (contd)

General
arrangement of coils with

regard to core
Type of component material chosen
Insulation system (Liquid insulant and
solid insulation material clearances and
thickness)
Short-circuit, impulse and switching
surge withstand.
08/07/15
Transformer Design Reliability

Sound
mechanical construction
Liberal oil ducts and electrical
clearances
Current and flux densities such as to
avoid local heating
Liberal radiating surfaces
Good insulating oil.
08/07/15
Transformer Design Losses

Losses
must be within the allowable

limits, so as not to injure the windings
08/07/15
Transformer Design Windings

Transformer windings are designed to get the
required number of turns into a minimum
space.
At the same time, the cross section of the
conductor must be large enough to carry the
current without overheating and sufficent
space must be provided for the winding
insulator and for cooling ducts, if any.
08/07/15
Transformer Design Windings

(Contd)
In design, the windings and their arrangements

must be done to achieve:
Sufficient dielectric strength against various
voltage stresses, such as lighting or switching
surges
Adequate winding ventilation
Adequate mechanical strength (for instance, to
withstand short-circuit forces)
Minimum cost
Specified loss maximums.
08/07/15
Insulation System
Insulation
system consists of
The liquid insulants together with
The solid insulating materials around
the windings
The insulation system isolates the
transformer windings from each other
and from the ground.
08/07/15
Insulation System (Contd)

The
most widely used transformer

insulation systems continue to use two
basic items:
A liquid insulation (transformer mineral
oil askarel or sillcone, of which more
than 90% are oil-filled) and
Solid insulation (Kraft paper, cellulose
products, PVC, PE and XLPE.
08/07/15
Liquid Insulants
The
insulating fluid serves three primary

purposes:
Provides dielectric strength
Provides sufficient cooling
Protects the insulation system.
08/07/15
Solid Insulating Materials
The solid material insulates the winding

because it possesses two distinct properties.
It has the ability to withstand both electrical
and mechanical stresses due to the voltages
used.
It is such a poor conductor that a negligibly
small current can flow through it and leak
away. In other words, a good insulator will
neither allow current to break through it nor
to steal through it.
08/07/15
Solid Insulting materials

(Contd)
Consequently, a practical insulation system

must contain material that performs the four
major function listed below:
The ability to withstand the relatively high
voltages encountered in normal service
(dielectric strength). This voltage includes both
impulses and transient surges
The ability to withstand the mechanical and
thermal (heat) stresses which accompany a
short circuit.
08/07/15
Solid Insulting Materials

(Contd)
The
ability to prevent excessive heat

accumulation (heat transfer).
The ability to maintain desired
characteristics for an acceptable
service life period, given proper
maintenance.
08/07/15
Cooling in Transformers
No-load losses and load losses are the two
significant sources of heating considered in
thermal modeling of power transformers.
Load losses are the more significant source
of transformer heating, consisting of copper
loss due to the winding resistance and stray
load loss due to eddy currents in other
structural parts of the transformer.
08/07/15
Cooling In Transformers
(Contd)
The basic method for cooling transformers is
transferring heat from the core and windings
to the insulating coolant such as oil.
The wasted energy in the form of heat
generated in the transformers due to the
foregoing iron and copper losses must be
carried away to prevent excessive
temperature rise and injury to the insulation
about the conductors.
08/07/15
Cooling In Transformers
(Contd)
Cooling
may be by
Natural circulation
Forced cooling using of fans, pumps,
etc.
08/07/15
Cooling System
08/07/15
Cooling System
08/07/15
Cooling Arrangements and

Designations
Both
the IEEE and the IEC established

standard designations for the various
cooling modes of transformers
The designation completely describes
the cooling method for the transformer,
and the cooling method impacts the
response of the transformer insulting oil
to overload conditions.
08/07/15
Cooling Arrangements and

Designation
(Contd).
DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS
Natural Cooling: type AN
Forced Cooling: type AF
OIL-IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS
Oil Circulation
Cooling Method
IEC Abbreviation
Natural Thermal
Head only
Air natural
ONAN
Air blast
ONAF
Forced Oil
Circulation by
Pumps
Air natural
OFAN
Air blast
OFAF
Water forced
OFWF
08/07/15
Transformer Loading And

Temperature Limits
Design
standards express temperature

limits for transformers in rise above
ambient temperature.
The use of ambient temperature as a
base ensure a transformer has
adequate thermal capacity, independent
of daily environmental conditions.
08/07/15

Temperature Limits (Contd)
The useful life of a transformer is dependent
on the life of its insulation, which ages rapidly
at elevated temperatures
To ensure a reasonable expectancy of life, it
is essential that the transformer is loaded
according to the prevailing ambient
temperature and also to the temperature of
the windings before loading.
08/07/15

Temperature Limits (Contd)
Type
Insulation Class
Temperature Rise
(oC)
AN
60
AF
80
AN
150
ONAN
65
ONAF
65
OFAN
65
OFAF
65
OFWF
65
08/07/15
Tap Changing Facility

One
of the simplest and most

inexpensive methods of providing for
adjustments in supply voltages is to
arrange tapings on transformer
windings
Tapings are usually provided for the
following purposes:
08/07/15
Purposes of Tap Changers

For maintaining the secondary voltage constant
with a varying primary voltage.
For varying the secondary voltage.
Consumers terminal voltages are reduced on
account of impedance drops, and this
necessitates tap-changing facilities to effect a
slight change in the turn ratio.
Seasonal (5-10%), daily (3-5%) and short-period
(1-2%) adjustments are needed in accordance
with the corresponding variations of load.
08/07/15
Purposes of Tap Changers

(Contd)
For providing an auxiliary secondary voltage for
a special purpose, such as lighting
For providing a reduced voltage for starting
rotating machinery
Control of active and reactive power flow in the
power system network
For providing a neutral either for earthing, or for
dealing with out-of-unbalance current in singlephase, three-wire circuits, in three-phase fourwire circuits, etc.
08/07/15
Tap Changing Modes

Off
Load Tap Changing

On-Load Tap Changing.
08/07/15
Three-Phase Connections
The main connections to be considered are:
Primary Secondary
Y-Y, Y-Delta, Delta-Y, Delta- Delta
Y connections provide the opportunity for
multiple voltages, while Delta connections
enjoy a higher level of reliability (if one
winding fails open, the other two can still
maintain full line voltages to the load).
08/07/15
(Contd).
Probably
the most important aspect of

connecting three sets of primary and
secondary windings together to form a
three-phase transformer bank is proper
winding phasing
The dots are used to denote polarity of
windings.
08/07/15
(Contd)
With these phase angles,
the center point of the Y
must the other all - or all
+ winding ends together
With these phase angles, the

winding polarities must stack
together in a complementary
manner (+ to -)
08/07/15
(Contd)
Getting this phasing correct when the

windings arent shown in regular Y or Delta
configuration can be tricky. An illustration is
shown below:
08/07/15
Y-Y Configurations
08/07/15
Y- Delta Configuration
Y - Delta
08/07/15
Delta Y Configurations
08/07/15
Delta Delta Connections
08/07/15
Tertiary Windings
Tertiary windings, in the form of delta
connection, have been used on star-star
connected three-phase transformers and
groups.
As its name implies, a tertiary winding is
simply a third winding of a transformer unit or
group, and the general form is the closed
delta for three-phase working.
08/07/15
Tertiary Windings (Contd)

The star-star connection has been regarded
with some disfavour on account of
Its third-harmonic phenomena and
Its behaviour when transforming very
seriously unbalanced loads.
So that the desire to eliminate these two
effects is the principal reason for
incorporating tertiary delta windings.
08/07/15
Tertiary Windings (Contd)
The uses or purposed of the tertiary delta

windings for star-star connected transformers
and groups are to:
Reduce third-harmonic voltage components
Permit the transformation of unbalanced
three-phase loads
Supply an auxiliary load in addition to the
main load.
08/07/15
Transformer Service
Classifications
Power Transformers
Generator Unit Transformer
Transmission Transformers
Sub-Transmission Subtraction Transformers
Distribution Transformer
Instruments Transformers
Current Transformers
Voltage Transformers
08/07/15
Three kinds of maintenance are normally

recognized:
Unscheduled maintenance- leads to
inevitable breakdown.
Ordinary maintenance repairs, adjustment
and replacement of parts shown to be
necessary by visual inspections made at
irregular intervals:
Scheduled maintenance regularly
scheduled inspections and periodic
dismantling or testing of equipment to check
every detail likely to cause trouble.
08/07/15
(Contd)
The
possibility of a fault occurring in a

transformer is NOT something remote.
In the light of this, the need to
undertake protective maintenance is
obvious.
There are three types of protective
maintenance.
08/07/15
Protective Maintenance
Predictive
maintenance
Preventive maintenance
Corrective maintenance
08/07/15
Predictive Maintenance
Predictive
maintenance involves more

frequent monitoring (inspection and
testing) of critical equipment by location,
function and by operating environment.
08/07/15
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance of transformers is an
integral part of an annual maintenance program.
It may involve monthly inspection, annual
energized testing of equipment (oil testing, gasin-oil analysis, infrared inspection), and deenergized biennial or triennial dismantling or
testing of equipment
To check every detail likely to cause trouble
(electrical insulation test, switchgear, and so
forth)
08/07/15
Corrective Maintenance
Corrective
maintenance is concerned
with units which have shown some
definite warning signals (such as cloudy
oil or unusual odour).
When equipment performance begins to
tail off and the deterioration so
recognized, corrective maintenance is
carried out to pinpoint the causes.
08/07/15
Important Insulation Oil Tests

Dielectric
Breakdown Test
Neutralization Number/Acidity Test
Moisture Content Test
Interfacial Tension Test Oil Power
Factor.
08/07/15
Insulation Oil Tests (contd)

Oil
Colour Test
Visual Examination
Specific Gravity Test
Sediment in Transformer Oil Test
Dissolved Gas Analysis.
08/07/15
Dielectric Breakdown Test

Dielectric strength is a measure of the
electrical strength of a material as an insulator.
Dielectric strength is defined as the maximum
voltage required to produce a dielectric
breakdown through the material and is
expressed as volts per unit thickness.
The higher the dielectric strength of a material
the better its quality as an insulator.
Instrumentation available now for dielectric
breakdown test is quite compact and efficient.
08/07/15

(Contd)
The primary tests that measures insulation
quality are ASTM D-877 and D-1816, D-924
The dielectric breakdown potential tests use
two electrodes of fixed geometry and a
specified separation.
D-877
Cap 10
08/07/15
D-1816
Cap 10

(Contd)
Voltage is applied and uniformly increased at a
rate of approximately 3 kV/s (rms value) until
breakdown occurs.
When the current arcs across the gap, the
voltage recorded at that instant is the dielectric
breakdown strength of the insulating liquid.
For new oils, this is considered to be 35 kV or
above. Used oils would not be acceptable
below 25kV.
08/07/15
Effect of Moisture on Dielectric

Breakdown
It is commonly acceptable that water that is
dissolved in the oil has a minimum effect on
the dielectric breakdown voltage.
Free water, on the other hand significantly
lowers the dielectric strength of the oil. The
variation of dielectric breakdown potential
with moisture is shown in Fig. Below.
08/07/15
Effect of Moisture on dielectric

Breakdown Diagram.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
08/07/15
10 15 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Acceptable test Values For

Dielectric Strength
Liquid Type
Test
Satisfactory
Need
Reconditioning
Mineral Oil
Dielectric
Strength
23kV
< 23kV
08/07/15
Neutralization/Acidity Test
Mineral oil will be oxidized when dissolved
oxygen is present
The extent of oxidation can be determined by
measurement of the acid concentration in the
oil (due to oil oxidation) according to ASTM D974.
The ASTM D-974 and D-664 are laboratory
tests whereas D-1534 is a field test that
determines the approximate total acid value of
the oil.
08/07/15
Neutralization/Acidity Test
(Contd0
The acid number or the neutralization number
is the milligrams (mg) of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) required to neutralize the acid
contained in 1 g of transformer oil.
Test data indicate that the acidity is
proportional to the amount of oxygen absorbed
by the liquid.
Therefore different transformers would take
different periods of time before sludge would
begin to appear.
08/07/15
Acidity Test Limits

IEEE
Guideline, C57.106-1991, gives

recommended acid levels at which the
oil should be reclaimed, reprocessed or
replaced. Their recommendations are
summarized in the Table below:
08/07/15
Acidity Test Limits (Contd)

Test and Method
Group II Group III
Acid number (mg KOH/g,

maximum)
0.2
0.5
Interfacial Tension
(dynes/cm, minimum)
24
16
08/07/15
IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance

of Insulating Oil in Equipment
Group I: This group contains oils that are in satisfactory

condition for continued use.
Group II: This group contains oils that require only
minor reconditioning for further use. (Mechanical
removal of moisture and insoluble contaminants).
Group III: This group contains oils in poor condition.
They should be reclaimed or disposed of, depending
upon economic considerations. (Requires mechanical
and chemical clean up procedures.)
Group IV: This group contains oils that are in such poor
condition that it is technically advisable to dispose of
them.
08/07/15
Moisture content Test

Mineral
oil is hydrophobic and the

amount of water that will dissolve in oil
is very small.
The solubility of water in oil is
dependent on temperature as shown in
Fig. Below.
08/07/15
Moisture Content Test Effect

of Temperature.
200
150
100
50
0
0
08/07/15
10
20
30
40
50
60
Moisture Content Test

The amount of moisture that can be dissolved
in oil increases rapidly as the oil temperature
increases as shown in Fig above
Therefore insulating oil purified at too high a
temperature may lose a large percentage of
its dielectric strength on cooling, because the
dissolved moisture is then changed to an
emulsion unless vacuum dehydration is used
as the purification process.
08/07/15
Moisture Content Test (Contd)

It
is commonly accepted that water that

is dissolved in the oil has a minimum
effect on the dielectric breakdown
voltage.
Free water, on the other hand
significantly lowers the dielectric
strength of the oil. The variation with
moisture is shown in Fig below.
08/07/15
Moisture content Test.

The
maximum allowable moisture in oil

for different voltage levels are as shown
in table below:
Voltage level (kV)
Maximum moisture
5
15
35
69
> 138
30
30
25
20
15
08/07/15
Oil power Factor Test

The power factor indicates the dielectric loss
of the liquid and thus its dielectric heating.
The power factor test is used as an
acceptance and preventive maintenance test
for insulting liquid.
Liquid power factor testing in the field is
usually done with portable, direct-reading
power factor measuring test.
08/07/15
Oil Power Factor Test (Contd)

Power
factor tests on oil are commonly

made with an ASTM D-924 test cell.
The power factor test has been a
traditional field test. However, this test is
considered a negative screening test.
It measures the leakage current through
an oil, which is a measure of the
contamination or deterioration.
08/07/15

Unfortunately, the
power factor test is

not specific in what it detects.
It does tell of the presence of polar
materials, but other tests must be made
to determine what polar compounds are
present.
Good new oil has power factor of 0.05
percent or less at 20 degC
08/07/15

Higher loss indicators represent deterioration
and/or contamination with moisture, carbon or
other conducting matter, varnish, sodium
soaps, asphalt compounds or deterioration
products.
The power factor can gradually increase in
service to a value as high as 0.5 percent at
20 degC, without, in most cases, indicating
deterioration.
08/07/15
Oil Power Factor Test (contd)

When the power factor exceeds 0.5 percent,
an investigation is needed to actually
ascertain what is causing the high loss factor.
Dielectric strength tests should be made to
determine the presence of moisture.
For maintenance purposes, loss factor test
values are as shown in the table below:
08/07/15
Oil Power Factor Test Limits
Liquid Type
Test
Satisfactory y
Need
Reconditioning
Mineral Oil
Loss factor
0.5%
> 0.5%
08/07/15
Oil Colour Comparison Test/ Visual

Examination of Oil Sample
Colour determination according to ASTM D1524 is a quick method to measure the extent
of oxidation.
This test consists of transmitting light through
oil samples and comparing the colour
observed with a standard colour chart.
The colour chart ranges from 0.5-8, with the
colour number 1 used for new oil.
08/07/15
Oil Colour Comparison Test/Visual

Examination (Contd)
The
range of colour test values for

transformer oil is listed in the table
below:
Liquid
Type
Test
Mineral Oil Colour

08/07/15
Satisfactory
Needs
Reconditioning
3.5
> 3.5
Specific Gravity Test

This
ASTM D-1298 test is conducted by

floating a hydrometer in oil and taking
the reading at the meniscus.
For oil free of contaminants, such as
water, askeral or silicone, the reading
should be less than 0.84
08/07/15
Gas-In-Oil Analysis
It is the most important diagnostic tool
available today for transformer maintenance.
It is the only test that can determine the
operating status of oil-filled electrical
equipment.
Insulating materials within transformers and
related equipment break down to liberate
gases within the unit.
08/07/15
Gas-In-Oil Analysis (Contd)

The
distribution of these gases can be

related to the type of electrical fault and
the rate of gas generation can indicate
the severity of the fault.
The identity of the gases being
generated by a particular unit can be
very useful information in any preventive
maintenance program.
08/07/15
Methods of Gas Detection

Total
Combustible Gases (TCG) Method

Gas Blanket Analysis
Dissolved Gas Analysis.
08/07/15
Total Combustible Gases

(TCG) Method
The
TCG method determines the total

combustible gases present in the gas
above the oil.
The major advantage of the TCG
method is that it is fast and applicable to
use in the field and it can be used to
continuously monitor a unit.
08/07/15
Total Combustible Gases (TCG)

Method - Disadvantages
However, there are a number of disadvantages

to the TCG method
Although it detects the combustible fault gases
(hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, ethane,
ethylene, and acetylene), it does not detect the
non-combustible ones (carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
and oxygen).
This method is only applicable to those units that
have a gas blanket and not to the completely oilfilled units of the conservator type.
08/07/15
Total Combustible Gases (TCG)

Method Disadvantages contd.
Another
disadvantage of the TCG

method is that it gives only a single
value for the percentage of combustible
gases but does not identify which gases
are actually present.
The gases present give an indication of
the type of fault that has occurred
08/07/15
Gas Blanket Analysis

In
the gas blanket analysis, a sample of

the gas in the space above the oil is
analysed for its composition.
This method detects all of the individual
components:
However, it is not applicable to the oilfilled conservator type units.
08/07/15
Gas Blanket Analysis Disadvantages

It suffers from the disadvantage that the
gases must first diffuse into the gas blanket.
In addition, this method is not at present best
done in the field.
A properly equipped laboratory is needed for
the required separation, identification and
quantitative determination of these gases at
the part per million level.
08/07/15
Dissolved Gas Analysis

The third and most informative method for the
detection of fault gases is the dissolved gas
analysis (DGA) technique
In this method a sample of the oil is taken from
the unit and the dissolved gases are extracted.
Then the extracted are separated, identified,
and quantitatively determined. This entire
technique is best done in the laboratory since
it requires precision operations.
08/07/15
Dissolved Gas AnalysisAdvantages

Since this method uses an oil sample it is
applicable to all type units
And like the gas blanket method it detects all
the individual gas components.
The main advantage of the DGA technique is
that it detects the gases in the oil phase giving
the earliest possible detection of an incipient
fault.this advantages alone outweighs any
disadvantages of this technique.
08/07/15
Dissolved Gas AnalysisAdvantages (Contd)

Advance
warning of developing faults

Determining the improper use of units
Status checks on new and repaired
units
Convenient scheduling of repairs
Monitoring of units under overload.
08/07/15
Fault Gases
The causes of fault gases can be divided into
three categories:
Corona or partial discharge
Pyrolysis or thermal heating, and
Arcing.
The most severe intensity of energy
dissipation occurs with arching, less with
heating, and least with corona.
08/07/15
Fault Gases (Contd)

A partial
list of fault gases that can be

found within a unit are shown in the
following three groups:
Hydrocarbons and hydrogen
Methane
CH4
Ethane
C2H6
Ethylene
C2H4
Acetylene
C2H2
08/07/15
Hydrogen
Fault Gases (Contd)

Carbon
Oxides
Carbon monoxide
CO
Carbon dioxide
CO2
08/07/15
Non-Fault Gases
Nitrogen
N2
Oxygen
O2
08/07/15
Other Transformer Tests

Turns
and Polarity Tests

Insulation power Factor
Core Excitation Current
Polarization Index
08/07/15
Other Transformer Tests

(Contd)
Insulation
(AC) resistance
D.C. Winding Resistance
D.C. Over-potential
Core Ground
Ground Resistance.
08/07/15
Turns Ratio And Polarity Tests

Ratio and polarity tests are carried out on
every transformer to ensure that the turns
ratio of the windings is correct and also the
tapping on any of windings have been made
at the correct position.
The turns ratio test is primarily used as an
acceptance test. It is also useful as a tool for
investigating problems, as well as an integral
part of a routine maintenance program.
08/07/15
Turns Ratio And Polarity Tests

(Contd)
The turns ration does not tell how many turns
of wire are on the primary or secondary coil,
but only gives the ratio of the primary to
secondary turns.
During the manufacture of new transformers,
the turn ratio test is performed on all tap
positions to verify that the internal
connections are correct and that there are no
short circuited turns
08/07/15
Turn Ratio And Polarity Tests

(Contd)
During
routine maintenance tests, the

turns ratio test could be performed to
identify short circuited turns, incorrect
tap settings, errors in turn count,
mislabeled terminals, and failure in tap
changers.
08/07/15
Power Factor Tests

Insulation
power factor should not be

confused with system power factor in an
AC network.
Insulation power factor provides an
indication of the quality of the insulation
Any winding in a transformer is
separated from all other winding and
ground potential by solid insulation
08/07/15
Power Factor Tests (Contd)

Cellulosic insulation forms an effective capacitance
network
In each capacitance are dielectric losses which can
be conveniently represented by a resistor in series
with a capacitor.
The insulation power factor is commonly defined as
the ratio of the resistance R to the impedance Z of
this combination and can be measured by applying
a voltage across this capacitance and measuring
the amperes and watt loss and then calculating the
power factor.
08/07/15
Power Factor Tests (Contd)

This
measurable dielectric loss will

develop heat in the insulation during
transformer operation (in the equivalent
resistor) and his heat, along with
moisture and other factors can cause
deterioration of the insulation.
08/07/15
Core Excitation Current Test

Excitation
current measurement is used
for
Field detection of shorted turns and
Heavy core damage such as shorted
laminations or core bolt insulation
breakdown.
08/07/15
Polarization Index (PI)

The
polarization index is obtained from

the dielectric absorption data.
Polarization index is the ratio of the 10
minute resistance to the 1 minute
resistance value
It is dimensionless and often used in
dielectric evaluation.
08/07/15
Polarization Index (PI) Guide

Polarization index Guide for Evaluation of
Transformer Condition.
Polarization Index
Condition
Less than 1.0
Dangerous
1.0-1.1
Poor
1.1 1.25
Questionable
1.25 2.0
Fair
Above 2.0
Good.
08/07/15
DC Winding Resistance Test

The DC winding resistance test, indicates a
change in DC winding resistance when there
are short circuited turns, poor joints or bad
contacts.
This reading should be compared to factory
test information.
High readings could indicate loose or dirty
connections. Prior readings, are however,
needed for comparison.
08/07/15
DC Over potential Testing
Insulation failure even in properly designed

equipment may result from such causes as:
Ageing and embrittlement due to
evaporization of plasticizers, stabilizers or
antioxidants or electrolytic deterioration,
chemical deterioration,
Lowered strength due to the absorption of
moisture,
08/07/15
DC Over potential Testing

(Contd)
Physical
damage
Insulation cold or hot (polymers) flow or
gradual tracking due to corona in
internal voids or across the surface with
eventual breakdown due to transients or
abnormally high voltage stresses
08/07/15
DC Overpotential Testing
(Contd)
The DC test voltage should be applied to the
winding in approximately 10 steps, recording
the leakage current in each step.
The leakage current is plotted against the test
voltage as the test progresses.
In this way, the condition of the equipment is
under constant surveillance and the test can
be stopped if the current is rising too rapidly.
08/07/15
DC Overpotential Testing
(Contd)
As long as the leakage versus voltage curve

is relatively flat (Point A to Point B), the item
under test is considered to be in good
condition. At some point the current will start
rising at a more rapid rate (point C).
08/07/15
Instrument Transformers
For
currents greater than 100A and voltages

higher than 500V, it is difficult to construct
ammeters and current coils of wattmeters,
energy meters and relays carrying
alternating currents greater than 100A.
Specially designed transformers known as
instrument transformers are used for this
purpose.
08/07/15
They
are used for extending the range of

AC instruments in preference to shunts
and series resistors.
Furthermore, it is dangerous to connect
such instrument to voltages exceeding
500V.
Instrument transformers therefore insulate
the instruments from high voltage.
08/07/15
Instrument Transformers- (Do)

As
transformers, they are electromagnetic

device
By using instrument transformers, electrical
instruments have been standardized to
operate on 220V and 5A or 1A.
They are essential parts of many electrical
systems, and are used for
Measuring (metering) and
Monitoring (relaying) devices.
08/07/15
(DO)
The
quality of instrument transformers

will affect directly the overall
accuracy and performance of these
metering and monitoring systems.
Instrument transformer performance is
critical in protective replaying, since the
relays can only be as good as the
instrument transformers.
08/07/15
Basic Function of Instrument

Transformers
To change
the magnitude (but not the

nature) of the quality (voltage or current)
being measured to a suitable level for use
with standard instruments (protective
relays, metering equipment, etc).
To provide insulation between primary
and secondary circuit for equipment and
personnel safety
08/07/15
Types of Instrument
Transformers
Instrument
transformers are of two

types,depending upon whether it is used
to excite the current or voltage coil of the
measuring instrument
Current
Transformers- CTs
Voltage Transformers VTs (also referred
to as Potential Transformers, PTs).
08/07/15
Types of Instrument
Transformers (Contd)
Both of these types act as insulators between
high-voltage primary and low-voltage secondary.
The primary of the VT is connected either line-toline-to-neutral, and the current that flows through
its winding produces a flux in the core.
The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is in
proportion to the turns of ratio and will usually
produce 230-240V at the secondary terminals
with rated primary voltage applied.
08/07/15
Accuracy of Instrument
Transformers
To be a useful part of a measurement system,
instrument transformers must change the
magnitude of the quantity being measured without
introducing any excessive unknown errors.
The accuracy of an instrument transformer must
either be of a known value, so that errors may be
allowed for, or the accuracy must be sufficiently
high that errors introduced by the instrument
transformer may be ignored.
08/07/15
Factors Affecting Accuracy of

Design
of the instrument transformer

Circuit conditions such as voltage,
current and frequency
Burden connected to the secondary
circuit of the transformer
08/07/15
08/07/15
Burden of Instrument
Transformers
In
instrument transformer operations,

the primary quantities are reduced by
the turns ratio to provide a secondary
current or voltage to energize protective
relays and other equipment.
The totality of the impedances of the
loads connected to current or voltage
transformers are referred to as burden.
08/07/15
Transformers (Do)
The
burden consists of the impedances

of the following:
Secondary winding of the instrument
transformer
Interconnecting leads
Relay and/or other connected devices.
08/07/15
Transformer (Do).
For
the devices, the burdens are usually

expressed in volt-amperes at a specified
current or voltage.
Thus for CTs or VTs, if Zb is the total
connected burden impedance and is the
volt-ampere burden, then the following
burdens are obtained for CTs and VTs.
08/07/15
Rated Characteristics of CTs

Rated primary current.
Rated short time current (primary)
Rated secondary current.
Rated exciting current.
Rated burden.
Insulation level (primary).
08/07/15
CTS Characteristics ( Do)
Current error or ratio error.

Phase angle error.
Composite error.
Accuracy class.
Over current factor.
08/07/15
Calculation of Burden of CTs

VA=
IZB x I2ZB
08/07/15
ZB=VA
I2
Example 1: Sample
Calculation of CT Burden
A current
transformer rated 30VA has a

secondary rated current of 5A and
impedance of 0.211 ohms.
If this CT supplies a relay through as
lead of resistance 0.4 ohm, calculate
the relay burden.
08/07/15
Solution 1: Calculation of CT
Burden
The
Permissible burden of the CT is

ZB=VA = 30 = 1.2
12 52
ZB= relay burden+ lead resistance + CT
secondary impedance
Relay burden = Z
lead resistance-CT secondary

impedances
= 1.2-0.4-0.-0.211
B
= 0.589
08/07/15
08/07/15
CTs For Relay Applications

Current
transformers, which step down

primary currents to lower, safer,
measurable values, are required for
Indicating and graphic ammeters
Energy meters and wattmeter (kWh and
kW meters)
Telemetering
Protective relays.
08/07/15
CTs For Relay Application(Do)

A CT
has a high-current primary winding

which is connected in series with the
line or load whose current is to be
metered,
Whilst its secondary winding is
connected in series with the current coil
of the meter (e.g. ammeter, wattmeter,
energy meter, relay, etc).
08/07/15
CTs For Relay Applications(Do)

The
primary current rating should be

selected from standardized values.
The value of the rated secondary
current shall be either 1A or 5A.
08/07/15
Caution When Operating CTs

It is VERY DANGEROUS to operate the
secondary of the CT on OPEN-CIRCUIT while
on load
REASONS if the secondary is open-circuited
while the primary is carrying a heavy load,
The secondary current suddenly drop to zero,
and
The demagnetizing or balancing effect of the
secondary mmf will no longer exist.
08/07/15
Reasons for Not Open

Circuiting The CT When On-Load
But at that instant of the secondary being open(Contd)
circuited, the primary current continues to flow, so

that there is now a large unbalanced primary mmf,
which will drive the core heavily into saturation on
each half-cycle of the AC supply.
The excessive core flux will induce a VERY HIGH
VOLTAGE in the multi-turn secondary circuit,
which may puncture the insulation or produce a
dangerous shock to personnel who come into
contact with it.
08/07/15
Reasons For Not Open-Circuiting The CT When

On-Load (Contd)
In a high-quality transformer, the induced voltage
can be several kilovolts
Furthermore, the unopposed primary ampereturns will produce abnormally high flux far in
excess of the useful (or mutual) flux produced by
the no-load current
This excess flux in the core causes large eddycurrent and hysteresis losses and excessive
heating in the core and windings, and the resulting
temperature rise can damage the insulation.
08/07/15
Some Standard CT Radios

CT Ratio
50:5
CT Ratio
300:5
CT Ratio
800:5
100:5
400:5
900:5
150:5
450:5
1000:5
200:5
500:5
1200:5
250:5
600:5
08/07/15
Selection Criterion For CT

Ratio
The major criterion for the selection is almost
invariably the maximum load current
In other words, the CT ratio should be selected
such that the CT secondary current at maximum
load should NOT exceed the continuous current
rating or the thermal limits of the connected relay
and equipment.
This is particularly applicable to phase-type relays
where the load current flows through the relays.
08/07/15
Example 2: Selection of CT
Ratio
Consider
a circuit to be protected by an
overcurrent relay maximum load current
of 90A.
Select the appropriate CT ratio.
08/07/15
Solution 2: Selections of CT
Ratio
The
CT should be selected to provide

just under 5 A secondary current for the
maximum load current.
And so select, say, a CT ratio of 100:5,
that is
CTR = 100 =20
5
08/07/15
Solution 2: Selection of CT
Ratio (Contd)
For
the maximum load of 90A, this

gives a maximum continuous
secondary current of,
Is = Imax load = 90 = 4.5A
CTR
20
Which is slightly below the rated 5A
08/07/15
IEC Specification of CT
Accuracy
15 VA Class to 10 P 20
Where 15 represents the continuous VA burden
10
represents the accuracy class
P stands for protection
20
represents the accuracy limit factor
Thus for such a 15 VA burden CT rated at 5A,
the VA/load is 15/5 =3V, and will have no more
than 10% error up to 20x3 = 60 V secondary.
08/07/15
Standard Values For Relaying

CTs
Continuous
VA burden 2.5, 5, 10, 15
and 30.
Accuracy classes- 5% and10%
Accuracy limit factor- 5, 10, 15, 20 and
30
Rated secondary amperes 1 A, 5 A
(5A preferred)
08/07/15
VTs For Relay Applications

Voltage
transformers, which step down

system voltages to sufficiently low, safer,
measurable values, are required for
Indication of the voltage conditions.
Energy meters and watt meters (kWh
and kW meters)
Protective relays
Synchronizing
08/07/15
Caution When Operating VTs

As
a precaution, voltage transformer

should NEVER be operated on SHORTCIRCUIT.
REASON- The full-load voltage at the
primary will produce a very large current
at the secondary that may damage the
windings.
08/07/15
Types of VTs for Protective

Relaying.
Voltage
transformers have wound

primaries that are
Either connected directly to the power
systems (VTs)
Or across a selection of capacitor string
connected between phase and ground,
that is, coupling-capacitor voltage
transformers (CCVTs)
08/07/15
Normal CTs and CCVTs
08/07/15
Points To Note About VTs

VTs are used at all power system voltages,and are
usually connected to the bus.
Usually the CCTVs are connected to the line,
rather than to the bus, because the coupling
capacitor devices may also be used to couple radio
frequencies to the line for use in pilot relaying
At about 115kV, the CCVT types becomes
applicable and generally more economical than
VTs at the higher voltages.
08/07/15
Points to Note About VTs (Do)

Either type of voltage transformer (VT or CCVT)
provides excellent reproduction of primary voltage,
both transient and steady-state, for protection
functions.
Saturation is not a problem because power
systems should not be operated above normal
voltage, and faults result in a collapse or reduction
in voltage.
VTs are normally installed with primary fuses,
which are not necessary with CCTVs. Fuses are
also used in the secondary.
08/07/15
Transformer Protection
The
degree of protection provided for a

transformer depends to some extend
upon its size, rating and importance of
the unit.
This protection will comprise a number
of systems each designed to provide the
requisite protection for the different
fault conditions identified.
08/07/15
Transformer Protection
(Contd)
A further
important factor is the

economic aspects.
The cost of protection of transformers
tends to be proportionally higher
than the cost of protection for other
plants items or equipments.
08/07/15
Transformer Protection Types
Differential protection
Overcurrent protection
Restricted earth-fault protection
Tank earth-fault protection
Gas generation and oil surge protection
(Buchholz relay)
Winding temperature protection.
Over fluxing protection.
Thermal overload protection.
08/07/15
Differential Protection In
Transformers
Fault
protection for transformers is

obtained principally by differential
type relays.
Differential protection provides the best
protection for both phase and ground
faults, expect in ungrounded systems or
where the fault current is limited by high
impedance grounding.
08/07/15
Differential Protection In
This
types of protection is usually given

to large power transformers that are in
excess of 500kVA.
However, differential relays cannot be
as sensitive as the differential relays
for generator protection because of
the following factors not ordinarily
present for generators
08/07/15
Problems of Differential
Relaying In Transformers
Transformer
taps for voltage control

Different voltage levels, including
taps. Hence different primary current in
the connecting circuits.
Different CT types, ratios and
performance characteristics, with
possible mismatch of ratios.
08/07/15
Problems of Differential
Relaying In Transformers
Phase shifts in star-delta connected
(Contd)
banks, affecting accurate or faithful

reproduction of current, both in wave
shape and magnitude.
Magnetizing inrush current which
appears to the differential relay as an
internal fault (current into, but not out of
the transformer)
08/07/15
Magnetizing Inrush Currents

In Transformers
When
a transformer is first energised, a

current transient known as
magnetizing inrush current flows, and
appears as an internal fault to the
differential-connected relays.
Peak inrush currents of 8 to 30 times
full-load peaks are common.
08/07/15

In Transformers (Contd)
If the transformer had been energised previously,

there is a high possibility that on de-energization,
some residual flux r was left in the iron core
Upon re-energization, the residual flux may
either add or subtract from the total flux ,
depending on the time point of re-energization,
thereby increasing or decreasing the
magnetizing inrush current.
08/07/15
Factors Affecting Magnitude

And Duration of Inrush
Size of the transformer bank
Current
Time
point of energization with relation to

the flux requirements
Size and nature of the power system source
Type of iron used in the manufacture
Prior history of the transformer bank
(residual flux)
L/R ratio of the transformer and system.
08/07/15

in Transformers (Contd)
Power
transformers are operated

normally near the knee of the
saturation curve
And so the additional flux from the
magnetizing inrush current plus any
residual flux will definitely saturate the
iron and thereby increase the
magnetizing current components.
08/07/15
Magnetizing Inrush Current In

The inrush current decays rapidly for the first

few cycles, and then very slowly, sometimes
taking 4 to 5 seconds to subside, where the
resistance is low.
The time constant (L/R) of the circuit is not a
constant because L is variable because of the
transformer saturation.
Time constants for magnetizing inrush currents
vary from 10 cycles for small units to 1
minutes for large units.
08/07/15
Magnetizing Inrush Current In

The
resistance from the source to the

transformer bank determines the
damping of the Inrush current wave.
Hence transformer banks adjacent to
near a generator will have a long inrush
current.
08/07/15
Solutions to Differential
Relaying Problems In
Since the inrush current appears as an
Transformers
internal fault to differential relays some

means of desensitizing them during an
inrush is necessary.
Several methods exist, and all are in
general use. They include the following:
08/07/15
A differential relay with reduced
Tranformers (Contd)
sensitivity to the inrush current wave (a

higher pickup, plus time delay to
override the high initial peaks)
A voltage-operated automatic
tripping suppressor unit in
conjunction with the differential relay.
08/07/15
Solution to Differential
Harmonically desensitizing the differential
relay during transformer bank enegization.

Use of the harmonic content of the inrush
current to restrain, and thus desensitize
the relay unit.
The magnetizing inrush current contains a
predominance of even harmonics,
particularly the second.
08/07/15
Relaying Problems in
In the harmonic desensitization:
It
is necessary to provide sufficient

restraints for the inrushes
Yet provide some degree of sensitivity for
internal faults which may also contain a
large amount of harmonics because of the
nature of fault or because of a combination
of light fault with an inrush.
08/07/15
Overcurrent Protection In
Transformers.
The
degree of protection that is provided

by an overcurrent relay is often limited
when applied to transformers.
Since the relay must not operate under
emergency loading conditions, it
requires a high current setting (often
about 200% rating).
08/07/15
Overcurrent Protection In
On
large transformers, therefore

overcurrent protection is often employed as
a back-up protection for terminal faults or
uncleared low voltage (LV) system faults.
In such cases overcurrent relays are
installed on both sides of the transformer
according to that requirements, and may
trip the side of the transformer with which
they are associated, or they may trip both.
08/07/15
Restricted Earth-Fault
Protection In Transformers
The difficulties inherent in the provision of

adequate earth-fault sensitivity in the overalll
differential protection system often requires
that the restricted earth-fault protection should
be added to both windings of the transformer
Separate CTs are mainly used for this
purposed or CTs associated with the overall
differential protection can be used for the
restricted earth-faulty protection.
08/07/15
Short-Circuit Protection With

Overcurrent Relays in
Overcurrent relaying is used for fault
Transformer
protection of transformers having circuit

breakers only when the cost of
differential relaying cannot be justified.
Overcurrent relaying cannot compare
with differential relaying in terms of
sensitivity.
08/07/15
Short-Circuit Protection in
Transformer (Contd)
Three
CTs, one in each phase, and at

least two overcurrent phase relays and
one overcurrent ground relay should be
provided on each side of the
transformer bank that is connected
through a circuit breaker to a source of
short-circuit current.
08/07/15
Short-Circuit Protection In
Transformers (Contd).
The
overcurrent relays should have

An Inverse-time element whose pickup
can be adjusted to somewhat above
maximum rated load current, say about
150% of maximum, and
Sufficient time-delay so as to be selective
with the relaying equipment of adjacent
system elements during external faults.
08/07/15
Tank Earth-Fault Protection In

Transformers
The
transformer tank is lightly insulated

from earth and all earthed cables
sheaths, and then bonded to earth via a
single copper strap, over which is
mounted a CT connected to a relay.
Any earth faults within the transformer
tank will produce a current in the
earthing strap which operates the relay.
08/07/15
Gas Generation and Oil Surge

All
faults within the transformer give rise

to the generation of gas
Gas production may be slow for minor
(or incipient) faults or violent in the case
of heavy faults.
The generation of gas is used as a
means of fault detection in the gas-and
oil-operated relay (Buchholtz relay).
08/07/15

protection In Transformer (Contd)
The
rising bubbles produced by the slow

generation of gas, due to a minor fault
passes upwards towards the consevator but
are trapped in the relay chamber causing a
fall in the level inside it.
This disturbs the equilibrium of the gas
float, thereby closing its contacts which
would normally be connected to give an
alarm.
08/07/15

Protection In Transformer (Contd)
A heavy
fault will produce a rapid

generation of gas, causing violent
displacement of the oil which moves the
surge float system of the relay in
passing the conservator.
This will result in the closure of the
surge float contacts which are arranged
to trip the transformer.
08/07/15
Winding Temperature
Large
transformer with forced cooling are

usually fitted with temperature devices to
Detect overloading of the transformer or
Failure of the cooling equipment
Two winding temperature instruments are
generally fitted on each transformer; each
instrument is fitted with two mercury
switch contacts.
08/07/15
Winding Temperature
Operation of one instrument is arranged
(Contd)
to start the cooling fans and pumps,

and this gives an alarm.
The other instrument is arranged to give
the same alarm and to trip the low
voltage circuit breaker.
08/07/15
Grounding Protection In
Transformers
On
grounded-neutral systems,
protection can be provided by insulating
a transformer tank from ground
And connecting it to ground through a
CT whose secondary energizes an
overcurrent ground relay.
08/07/15
Remote Tripping In
Transformers
When
a transmission line terminates in

a single transformer bank, the practice
is frequently to omit the high-voltage
circuit breaker and thereby avoid
considerable expense.
Such practice is made possible by what
is called transferred tripping or,
preferably, remote tripping.
08/07/15
Remote Tripping in
Remote
tripping is the tripping of the

circuit breaker at the other end of the
transmission line for faults in the power
transformer.
The protective relays at that other end of
the line are not sensitive enough to
detect inter-turn faults inside the
transformer bank.
08/07/15
Remote Tripping In
Consequently,
the transformer banks

own differential-relaying equipment trips
the banks low-voltage breaker and
initiates tripping of the breather at the
other end of the line.
08/07/15
System grounding
Ungrounded
(or Isolated) Systems

Arching Ground Faults
Solidity-Grounded Systems
Impedance-Grounded Systems
Arc-Suppression (or Resonant)
Grounding System
Ground-Fault Detection Methods
08/07/15
Introduction
The subject of earthing may be divided into
two.
General Equipment earthing
System neutral earthing
The main objects of earthing are to:
Reduce the voltage stresses due to switching,
lighting, faults, etc
Control fault currents to satisfactory values.
08/07/15
General Equipment Earthing

It
is the practice of earthing the metallic

frames of electrical equipment
Purpose Improve safety to
Operational staff
The general public
Property in general and
System electrical equipment
08/07/15
System Neutral Earthing

It is the practice of earthing the star-point or
neutral of the electrical power system.
The method of earthing employed affects the
system behaviour, the levels of currents and
voltages in the even of a fault
In general, a low grounding impedance leads
to higher earth-fault current but lower
overvoltages
08/07/15
Factors Affecting Earth Fault

Current
Phase
voltage
Neutral earthing arrangement of the
system and
Local earthing resistance between the
metallic frames and earth.
08/07/15
Concept of Hazard Voltage, Step

Voltage and Touch Voltage
Hazard
voltage- refers to the type of

potential or voltage distribution in the
immediate vicinity of a tower or mast,
following a ground fault
Step voltage the voltage that exists
between the two feet of a person
standing on the grounding system.
08/07/15
Hazard voltages Types

Touch
Voltage the voltage that exists

between the hand and both feet of the
person, upon touching the tower or
mast having earth fault current through
it (occasioned by, say a flashover).
08/07/15
Hazard Voltage Distribution

Around Steel Pole
08/07/15
Hazard Voltage Distribution

(Continued)
Fig
shows the variation in hazard

voltage (voltage gradient) around a
steel pole
The further one is from the pole, the
lower the potential to which he is
subjected.
08/07/15
System Neutral Earthing

Arrangements
Isolated
or Ungrounded Neutral
Solidly or Direct Earthing
Impedance Earthing
Arc-suppression or peterson-coil
Earthing
08/07/15
Isolated or Ungrounded
Neutral System
In an isolated neutral system, there is no
physical or direct connection (I.e., infinite
impedance) between the systems neutral
and earth
This results in the zero-sequence
impedances of the generators and
transformers having infinite value, and the
network zero-sequence impedance being
determined by the earth capacitances of the
lines
08/07/15
Isolated or Ungrounded
Neutral System (Continued)
This results in the zero-sequence impedance
of the generators and transformers having
infinite values.
And so the network zero-sequence impedance
is determined by the earth capacitances of the
lines
Ungrounded neutral systems are thus in effect
capacitively grounded neutral systems, the
capacitance being the conductor capacitance
to earth.
08/07/15
Isolated System Voltage and

Current Phasor Representations
08/07/15
Isolated System-Voltage and Current

Phasor Representations (continued)
The
line conductors have capacitances

between one another and to ground.
The former as represented by the delta
set of capacitances have little influence
on the grounding characteristics of the
system, and will be discarded from the
considerations.
08/07/15

(Continued)
In normal balanced operation, the capacitive
currents in each of the earth capacitances will
be equal and displaced 1200 from each other.
The voltages across each branch are therefore
equal and also displaced by 120 degrees to
each other
The capacitive currents of all three-phase lines
are leading the respective line to neutral
voltages by 90 degrees, and the vector sum all
three currents is zero.
08/07/15

(continued)
But
during a phase-earth fault on say,

phase B, the charging/capacitive
current of the faulted phase goes to
zero because its voltage to earth is zero
The phasor relationships after the line
ground fault on the isolated system are
shown in fig below:
08/07/15
Isolated System Phase

Ground Fault
08/07/15
Isolated System-Phase
Ground Fault (Contd)
When
phase B is grounded, the

voltages V-an and V-cn of the healthy
phases across the other two earth
capacitance branches will increase to
line-to-line values V-ag and V-cg
respectively with respect to ground
08/07/15
Isolated System PhaseGround Fault (Contd)

As can be seen, these voltages V-ag and Vcg are no longer 120deg out of phase, but 60
deg. Hence the sum of currents I-ag and I-cg
is three times the original capacitance current
to neutral
That is, IBG = 3IAG = 3ICG
This fault current being capacitive, leads the
original phase to neutral voltage by 90 deg,
and appears in the neutral, returning to the
system through the fault.
08/07/15
Isolated System Phase

Ground Fault Arching Grounds
If the fault can be interrupted, it is most likely
to be done at current zero. However, since
the current leads by 90 deg in the capacitive
circuits, current zero occurs at the instant of a
voltage maximum.
Thus, if the fault momentarily clears, a high
voltage immediately appears across the fault
and restrike of the fault will probably occur.
This is the so-called phenomenon of arcing
grounds.
08/07/15
Isolated System Phase-Ground

Fault Arching Grounds (Contd)
In the momentary interval of time that the fault
has been cleared, the excessive voltage
charge of the capacitors on the healthy lines
has been trapped as a DC charge
When the arc restrikes again, the capacitors
are again recharged by a line-to ground
voltage added to the trapped charge
Thus a restrikes after current zero clearing is
more inevitable, adding another charge.
08/07/15
Isolated System PhaseGround Fault Arching
Grounds
(cont)thus probably
The phenomenon
becomes an oscillating and selfperpetuating build-up in voltage, which
eventually will lead to an insulation
failure on another phase and a major
two-phase fault.
08/07/15
Isolated System PhaseGround Fault-Arching Grounds

(Contd)
While the first failure may have been a tree
branch in the line, the second failure (as a
result of arc restrikes and build-up of
overvoltages) may occur at some other
location, entirely, perhaps involving expensive
equipment insulation, such as a transformer.
Thus arching grounds leading to arc restrike
and voltage build-ups in ungrounded system
actually caused troubles that resulted in its
abandonment.
08/07/15
Isolated System Advantages

Operating a system with the neutral isolated
results in low values of earth-fault current
equal to the system capacitance current.
The hazard voltage between faulted
equipment and earth is consequently small,
which improves safety. Thus for the same
hazard voltage, relatively higher protective
earthing resistances are acceptable,
compared with most other neutral earthing
systems.
The voltages of the healthy phases are
unaffected by a ground fault, thus avoiding
outrages
of
healthy
phases.
08/07/15
Isolated System
Disadvantages
There exists the high probability of arc
restrike when interrupting the fault current,
and this can lead to the phenomenon of
unsafe buildup of transient overvoltages in
the system, dangerous to both personnel and
equipment.
This trouble coupled with other factors led to
the adoption or grounded neutral systems in
some form.
08/07/15
Adoption of Grounded Systems

Because of the greater danger to personnel,
code authorities frowned on ungrounded
systems.
Equipment costs were generally lower for
equipment rated for grounded neutral
systems because of the reduction in
insulation permissible.
At high voltages being used today (69kv and
above), material savings in transformer costs
can be realized by employing reduced basic
insulation level (BIL). The requirement for
safety reducing insulation level demand that
system neutral be earthed
08/07/15
Solid or Direct Earthing

Due
to the solid grounding of the

system, the neutral point of the
transformer is always at ground
potential
Therefore the healthy phases, in
general, remain at their normal phase
value, almost unaffected by the ground
fault.
08/07/15

Phase-Ground Fault
08/07/15

Phase- Ground Fault (Contd)
When
a ground fault occurs on phase

B, the voltage to earth V-bn of phase B
becomes zero
And capacitive current I-bg flows from
faulty phase B to earth, and is then
divided into two components I-ag and Icg.
08/07/15
Solid or Direct Earthing Phase

Ground Fault (contd)
In
addition, the power source provides a

fault current component I-fbg which
flows through the faulty phase
conductor to the fault location and
returns to the power source by way of
the earth path and the neutral
connection
08/07/15
Solid or Direct Earthing Phase

Ground Fault (contd)
The fault current I-fbg is predominantly
inductive and lags behind the original voltage
V-bn of the faulty phase, by approximately 90
deg.
The resultant flow of the current, by
superimposition of the leading capacity
current I-b g and the lagging predominantly
inductive fault current I-fb g
08/07/15

Phase-Ground (contd)
The
flow of the heavy lagging current

through the fault will almost completely
nullify the effect of the capacitive
current.
The possibility of arching ground
phenomenon or its resultant over
voltage conditions occurring is greatly
reduced.
08/07/15

Advantages
It is simple and inexpensive in that it requires no
extra equipment. The expense of the earthcurrent limiting device such as resistors, reactors,
etc, is eliminated. This is an important
consideration on HV systems when multiple
earthing is used.
The neutral point is held at earth potential under
all operating conditions. Consequently, the
voltage of any conductor to earth under earthfault conditions will Not exceed the normal phase
voltage of the system.
08/07/15

Advantages (Continued)
Hazard voltages are reduced to acceptable
levels. Power frequency phase-earth
overvoltages are lowest, typically below 1.4
p.u., and this explains why HV systems are
solidly earthed.
On HV systems 132 kV and above, additional
savings are available because transformer
windings with graded insulation can be used.
08/07/15

Advantages (continued)
The
protection of the system is

simplified by virtue of the fact that the
ground fault current compares in
magnitude with inter-phase fault
currents, making detection relatively
easier.
08/07/15
Solid or Direct EarthingDisadvantages

A solidly
grounded system produces the

greatest magnitude of fault current
when a ground fault occurs
The increased ground fault current
result in greater influence (interference)
on neighbouring communication
circuits.
08/07/15

Disadvantages (contd)
The
increased ground fault current

produced more conductor burning.
Any third harmonic currents that may
circulate between neutrals tends to be
excessive. This applies when earthed
neutrals are those of star-connected
generators or transformers without a
delta winding.
08/07/15
Impedance Earthing
MV system often use different types of
impedance earthing.
When it becomes necessary to limit the earth
fault current, a current-limiting device is
introduced in the neutral and earth.
Impedance earthing involves connecting a
resistor or reactor between the system neutral
point and earth.
08/07/15
Impedance Earthing-PhaseGround Fault.
08/07/15
Impedance Earthing-PhaseGround Fault (Contd)

The principle of current flows in the
impedance earthing system is similar to that
of solid grounding system,
However, in the event of a ground fault, the
phase-earth voltages of the healthy phases
will increase to line values.
Furthermore, the magnitude and phase
relationship of the inductive fault current I-fbg
depends on the relative values of the zero
sequence reactance of the power source
circuit and the ohmic value of the impedance.
08/07/15
Impedance Earthing- PhaseGround Fault (Contd)

The fault current can be resolved into two
components, one I-fbgr being in phase with
the voltage to neutral of the fault phase and
the other I-fgbx lagging it by 90deg.
The lagging component of the fault current
will be in direct phase opposition to the
resultant capacitive current at the fault
location.
08/07/15
Impedance Earthing PhaseGround Fault (Contd)
By suitable choice of the ohmic value of the

impedance, the lagging component of the fault
current can be made equal to or more than the
capacity current, so that no transient oscillation due
to arcing grounds can occur.
However, if the ohmic value of the impedance is
sufficiently high so that the lagging current is less
than the capacity current, then the system condition
approaches that of the ungrounded neutral system
with the risk of transient overvoltages occurring.
Another important but conflicting consideration in the
choice of the ohmic value is the power loss during
line to ground faults.
08/07/15
Impedance Earthing Advantages

It permits the use of discriminative protective
gear.
It minimizes the hazard of arching grounds
(only in case of low resistance value)
The ground fault currents are reduced, thus
obviating the harmful effects of the heavy
currents associated with solid earthing such as
interference with communication circuits and
burning of conductors, switchgear, motors,
cables.
08/07/15
Impedance Earthing
Advantages (continued)
It
improves system stability under

ground fault conditions.
It reduces momentary line-voltage dip
by clearing of ground fault
It minimizes stray ground fault currents
for personnel safety.
08/07/15
Impedance EarthingDisadvantages
With an impedance-earthed MV system, the
phase-earth voltage of a healthy phase can
reach 1.732 times the normal value under
earth-fault conditions, and occasionally some
5% higher.
This should, however, not pose problems with
system equipment, since the insulation level
in MV systems is based on much higher
lightning overvoltages.
08/07/15
Impedance EarthingDisadvantages (continued)
The system neutral will almost invariably be

displaced during ground fault
The provision of the earth-current limiting device
(resistor or reactor) means extra investment cost in
the system.
The inductive nature of the impedance-earthing is of
particular disadvantage with overhead lines exposed
to lightning, since travelling waves or impulses are
subject to positive wave reflection. This higher
reflected wave voltage may unduly stress the
insulation of the equipment and cause breakdown.
08/07/15
Arc-Suppression Earthing (or

Resonant Grounding)
Arc-suppression-coil, also called Peterson
coil after the inventor, is an attempt to
eliminate the fault current that could cause
the arching ground condition.
Arc-suppression coil earthing is can be seen
as special reactance earthing, whose
inductance can be adjusted to closely match
the network phase-earth capacitances,
depending on the system configurations.
08/07/15
Arc-Suppression Grounding
(Continued)
The inductance of the arc-suppression-coil is
adjusted such that the inductive current due
to the coil approximately neutralizes
capacitive current through the total network
capacitance 3c, at the fault
The resultant earth-fault current is
theoretically suppressed and in any case
inadequate to maintain the the arc. Hence the
name arc suppression coil.
08/07/15
(Continued)
08/07/15
(continued)
Voltage to earth of the fault phase at the point
of fault becomes zero
Voltage on the healthy phases is increased to
1.732 times the normal value.
A resultant capacity current I-bg equal to three
times the normal line to neutral charging
current flows through the fault. This leads the
voltage of the fault phase by 90 deg.
08/07/15
(Continued)
Voltage of the faulty phase, I.e., phase voltage,
is impressed across the arc suppression coil,
and a fault current I-fbg restricted in magnitude
by the impedance of the coil, flows through the
faulted conductor, lagging the voltage of the
faulty phase by 90deg.
The capacity current I-bg and the fault current Ifbg are in direct phase opposition.
The tuned inductance is given by
L =
1
32 C
08/07/15
Ground Fault Detection

Method
In a 3-phase circuit, a combination of
overload and earth-leakage relays supplied
from a CT is often used.
A simple earth-leakage protection can be
implemented in a star-connected circuit by
placing a relay between the neutral point and
earth. The relay is operated by a CT as
shown in the Fig below.
08/07/15

Method (Contd)
08/07/15

Method (Contd)
If
an earth occurs in any phase, for

example at point F, then the fault
current will flow through the earth path
to the neutral.
The current in the CT will operate the
relay, which will trip the CB.
08/07/15
Thank you.
Nagode.
Eseun.
Imeela.
Masabuke.
08/07/15

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WORKSHOP ON POWER TRANSFORMERS

Topics To Be Covered (Contd)

Transformer and Relaying

The transformer is a static electric device,

It transfers power by electromagnetic

generation of electricity or voltage

power plants, this motion is supplied

First Law of Magnetics

after, it was discovered that a

Right-Hand Thumb Rule

Later, the direction of the magnetic field

a current-carrying coil is wrapped

Second Law of Magnetics

electromagnet illustrates the

Magnetic Flux Density

density flux may be thought of

1831 and 1832, Sir Michael

a conductor moves relative

average induced electric potential,

LENZS LAW (Contd)

Transformer major Parts

Major Parts of Transformer

core, a magnetic circuit with a

Magnetic Circuit (Contd)

Tank Enclosure and Cooling

tank contains the transformer

are usually made of porcelain

gas, oil, or synthetic liquid may be

can be used for the following

of the coils P and S is connected

line with Faradays observation, the

the generated flux

secondary current will also

Basic Transformer Relationships

In considering the basic theory, we would be

the flux varies sinusoidally, we

the instantaneous emf e2

maximum value of the induced emf

r.m.s. value of the secondary

due to the effect of mutual

can be seen that the supply voltage

above equations show that the two

there are no voltage loss across

Transformation or Turns Ratio

the equations and, we

Components Of No-Load Current

active or power component is

active and magnetizing

Operation Under Load

Operation Under Lod

Operation Under Load

the slightest decrease in the mutual

Current Transformation Ratio

can happen, only when the primary

Operation Under Load

Voltage Regulation (Contd)

V.R. = No-load sec.Vol- Full-load sec.Vol

Voltage Regulation in Terms of

the equivalent circuit referred

From the phasor diagram,

But V1A is negligible compare to (E1+E1A)

[cos e1cos 2 + sin e1sin 2]