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FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOR

SM 60.42 - OBS

Prof. S. Siengthai
SOM/AIT/TH
Email: s.siengthai@ait.ac.th;
sununta.siengthai@gmail.com

Learning Objectives:

Define the key biographical characteristics;


Identify two types of ability;
Shape the behavior of others; Identify the major
individual variables that influence work behavior;
Distinguish between the four schedules of
reinforcement;
Clarify the role of punishment in learning;
Practice self-management.
Perception and its influence on individual behavior;
Describe how attributions influence our behavior
Distinguish between stereotyping and prejudice;

Learning Objectives:

Explain what an attitude is and identify its three


components;
Discuss the relationship between job satisfaction
and performance;
Describe the major forces influencing personality
Identify the Big Five personality dimensions.
Discuss several important personality factors.

Biographical characteristics:
Age;
Gender;
Marital status;
Job tenure
Educational attainment.
Socioeconomic
background;
Nationality;
Race.

Ability:

Intellectual abilities;
Physical ability;
The ability - job fit

Individual Variables:
(contd.)

Aptitude, Ability and Skill:


-Aptitude represents a persons capability of learning
something, whereas ability reflects a persons
existing
capacity to perform various tasks needed for a
given
job and includes both relevant knowledge and skills.
-Although distinctions can be made between the two
terms, ability and skill, often are used
interchangeably.
-Some abilities and skills are primarily innate. These
Include such characteristics as spatial orientation,

Dimension of Intellectual Ability:

Number aptitude;
Verbal comprehension;
Perceptual speed;
Inductive reasoning;
Deductive reasoning;
Spatial visualization;
Memory.

Learning:
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.

Theories of learning:

Classical conditioning;
Operant conditioning;
Social cognitive learning;

Attentional processes;
Retention processes;
Motor reproduction processes;
Reinforcement processes;

Shaping: A managerial tool


4 Methods of shaping behavior:
* positive reinforcement;
* negative reinforcement;
* punishment; and
* extinction.

Research findings on shaping behavior:

1.

2.

3.

Some type of reinforcement is necessary to


produce a change in behavior;
Some types of rewards are more effective than
others for use in organization;
The speed with which learning takes place and
the permanence of its effects will be determined
by the timing of reinforcement.

Two major types of schedules of reinforcement:


1. Continuous reinforcement;
2. Intermittent reinforcement:
2.1 fixed-interval;
2.2 variable-interval;
2.3 fixed-ratio;
2.4 variable-ratio.

Behavior modification:

The typical OB Mod program follows a 5-step


problem-solving model:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Identifying critical behaviors;


Developing baseline data;
Identifying behavioral consequences;
Developing and implementing an
intervention strategy;
5. Evaluating performance improvement.

Individual
characteristics

MARS Model
Role
Perception

Values
Personality

Motivation
Behavior and
Results

Perceptions
Ability
Emotions and
attitudes

Situational
Factors

Stress
MARS model of individual behavior and
results
Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2005) Organizational Behavior, McGraw-Hill ,
p.38.

Variables that Influence Work Behavior:

Individual Variables
Demographic factors
Abilities and skills
Perception
Attitudes
Personality

Work Behavior
Productive
Nonproductive
Counterproductive

Organizational
Variables:
Resources
Leadership
Rewards
Structure
Job Design

Individual Variables: (contd.)


Perception:
Perception is the cognitive process by which an
individual gives meaning to the environment.
Because each person gives his or her own meaning
to stimuli, different individuals will see the same
thing in different ways.
Perception involves cognition (knowledge).
Thus, perception includes the interpretation of
objects, symbols, and people in the light of pertinent
experiences. In other words, perception involves
receiving stimuli, organizing the stimuli, and
translating or interpreting the organized stimuli so

Individual Variables: (contd.)


Stereotyping:
-a process employed to assist individuals in
dealing with massive information-processing
demands.
-stereotypes can be helpful but prejudice is
never helpful. This is because prejudice is a
stereotype that refuses to change when
presented with information indicating the
stereotype is inaccurate.

How to use stereotypes more


effectively:

Remember that stereotypes are frequently


based on little or inaccurate information;
Always be willing to change or add
information that will improve the accuracy of
your stereotypes;
Understand that stereotypes rarely
accurately apply to a specific individual.
Judgments based on personal knowledge of
a specific person are almost always more
accurate than using a broad category to
which that person belongs.

The Attribution Process:

Event

Analysis of
What caused
The event

Reinforcement
Or modification
of Previous
Assumptions
Of causality

Choices
Regarding
Future
behavior

Attribution theory is concerned with the process


by which individuals interpret events around
them as being caused by a relatively stable
portion of their environment.
Adapted from Abraham Korman, Organizational Behavior
(Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977), p.273.

The Attribution Process:


The attribution process also can be important in
understanding the behavior of other people. The behavior or
others can be examined on the basis of its distinctiveness,
consistency, and consensus.
Distinctiveness is the degree to which a person behaves
similarly in different situations.
Consistency is the degree to which a person engages in the
same behaviors at different times.
Consensus is the degree to which other people are
engaging in the same behavior.
The attributions made regarding why the event took place
have important implications ford dealing with the problem.

Attitude:
Attitudes are determinants of behavior because they
are
linked with perception, personality, and motivation.
An attitude is a mental state of readiness, learned
and
Organized through experience, exerting a specific
influence on
a persons response to people, objects, and
situations with
which it is related. The implications:
1. Attitudes are learned.
2. Attitudes define ones predispositions toward
given aspects of the world.

Attitude:
Affect is the emotional component of an attitudes
and is often learned from parents, teachers, and
peer group members. It is the part of an attitude
that is associated with feeling a certain way
about a person, group, or situation.
Sometimes, there may be discrepancies between
attitudes and behaviors. That is, the behavioral
component of an attitude held by someone might
suggest behavior different from or even opposed
to the actual behavior engaged in by the
individual.
This kind of discrepancy is called cognitive

Changing Attitude:
Many variables affect attitude change, they all can be
described in terms of three general factors: trust in
the sender, the message itself, and the situation.
The greater the prestige of the communicator, the
greater the attitude change that is produced. Liking
the communicator can lead to attitude change
because people try to identify with a liked
communicator and tend to adopt attitudes and
behaviors of the liked person.
Even if a manager is trusted, presents a convincing
message, and is liked, the problems of changing
peoples attitudes are not easily solved. An

Changing Attitude:
An attitude that has been expressed publicly are
more difficult to change because the person has
shown commitment, and to change would be to
admit a mistake.
Studies indicate that if people are distracted while
they are listening to a message, they will show
more attitude change because the distraction
interferes with silent counter-arguing.

How to increase effectiveness in


changing attitudes

It is easier to make small changes than large ones.


If the change you want is a large one, you will be
more effective if you concentrate on gradually
changing the attitude over a period of time;
The key to changing an attitude is to identify the
beliefs or values that are part of it and then
provide the attitude holder with information that
will alter those beliefs or values;
Dont overlook the setting in which the attempted
change occurs. Make it as pleasant and enjoyable
as possible;

How to increase effectiveness in changing


attitudes
People will more likely change their
attitudes
when it is to their advantage to do so.
Help
identify reasons that changing the
attitude
is a good idea.

Personality:
Personality is a relatively stable set of feelings and
behaviors that have been significantly formed
by genetic and environmental factors.
Or in other words, it represents the overall profile
or combination of characteristics that capture
the unique nature of a person as the person
reacts and interacts with others.
1. Personality appears to be organized into
patterns which are, to some degree,
observable and measurable;
2. Personality has superficial aspects, such as
attitudes toward being a team leader, and a
deeper core, such as sentiments about
authority or the strong work ethic;

Personality:
3. Personality involves both common and unique
characteristics. Every person is different
from every other person in some respects and
similar to other persons in other respects.

Personality Determinants:
Heredity refers to those factors that were
determined at conception.
Environment These include: culture, our early
Conditioning, the norms among family, friends,
and social groups; and other experiences.
Situation influences the effects of heredity and
environment on personality.

Sixteen Primary Traits:

1. Reserved
2. Less intelligent
3. Affected by feelings
4. Submissive
5. Serious
6. Expedient
7. Timid
8. Tough-minded
9. Trust
10. Practical
11. Forthright
12. Self-assured
13. Conservative
14. Group dependent
15. Uncontrolled
16. Relaxed

Outgoing
More intelligent
Emotionally stable
Dominant
Happy-go-lucky
Conscientious
Venturesome
Sensitive
Suspicious
Imaginative
Shrewd
Apprehensive
Experimenting
Self-sufficient
Controlled
Tense

The Big Five Personality Model:


Extroversion the tendency to be friendly, sociable, and
expressive.
Emotional stability the tendency to experience positive
emotional states. Feeling psychologically secure, calm, and
relaxed are onsistent with having high emotional stability.
Agreeableness Being courteous, forgiving, tolerant,
trusting, and soft-hearted are traits associated with
agreeableness.
conscienciousness is exhibited by those who are
described as dependable, organized, and responsible. It also
includes perseverance, hard work, and achievement
orientation.
Openness to experience the extent to which an individual
has broad interests and is willing to be a risk-taker. Specific
traits include curiosity, broad-mindedness, creativity,
imagination, and intelligence.

Dimension

People who score high on this


dimension tend to be more:

Consciousness

Careful, dependable,
self-disciplined

Agreeableness

Courteous, good-natured,
empathic, caring

Neuroticism

Anxious, hostile, depressed

Openness to
experience

Sensitive, flexible, creative,


curious

Extroversion

Outgoing, talkative, sociable,


assertive

Source: McShane and Von Glinow (2005)

The Big Five Personality Model:


A few select personality traits are used to examine
the
relationship between behavior and performance.
Three
such characteristics are:
1. Locus of control the degree to which they
believe their behaviors influence what happens
to them;.
2. Self-efficacy- personal beliefs regarding
competencies and
abilities; (magnitude, strength, and generality)
3. Creativity The ability to break away from
habit-bound thinking and produces innovation,

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator:


This is one of the most widely used personality
frameworks.
It is essentially a 100-question personality test
that asks people how they usually feel or act in
particular situations.

Hollands Six-Types of personality and work environment


Holland type

Personality traits

Realistic

Practical, shy,
materialistic stable
Analytic, introverted,
reserved, curious,
precise, independent
Creative, impulsive,
idealistic, intuitive,
emotional
Sociable, outgoing,
conscious, need for
affiliation
Confident, assertive
energetic, need for
power
Dependable, disciplined
orderly, practical,
efficient

Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional

McShane & Von Glinow (2005) p,63

Work environment
characteristics
Work with hands, machines, or tools
focus on tangible results
Work involves discovering, collecting, and
analyzing; solving problems.
Work involves creation of new products
or ideas, typically in an unstructured setting
Work involves serving or helping others,
working in teams
Work involves leading others; achieving
goals through others in a results-oriented
setting
Work involves systematic manipulation of
data or information

References:
Ivancevich and Matteson
(1999)
Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill International Editions.
Robbins, Stephen P. (2003) Organizational
Behavior, Prentice Hall, 10th edition.
Schermerhorn; Hunt; and Osborn (2003)
Organizational Behavior, 8th edition, John Wiley &
Sons.
McShane, Steven L. and Von Glinow, Mary Ann
(2005) Organizational Behavior, McGraw-Hill,
third edition, 688 pp.

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