Technical Communication

What is communication?
What does it mean to communicate?
The dictionary definition is to exchange (thoughts) or make known

(information or feelings) by speech, writing or other means, to transmit

The word communication has its root in the Latin word communicare,
which means to share
Communication is the sharing of information, knowledge, and thoughts.
Communication is more than just messaging or swapping information. It
involves not just words but the use of all our senses. E.g. With faceto-face
dialogue, our facial expression, tone, body language, ability to listen with
patience, all contribute to the conveying of the message and information
between two people .

Contd
For example, the written words, whether in books and in

magazines, e-mails or texts, can convey more than just the

writing. It can inspire, evaluate and encourage if that is the
intention of the writer. It can also confuse and exasperate if
we are not careful!
Lynne Truss, in a recent book of punctuation, pointed out
how easily the meaning of the written word can be altered
just by rearranging the punctuations. She invites us to
compare the following two sentences; A women, without
her man, is nothing, and A women: without her, man is
nothing!

The process of communication

The transmission and interchange of ideas, facts, feelings, or courses of

action.
We give, get or share information with others during this process.

Elements of communication
Communication involves at least two persons, the sender and the receiver,
without which the communication can not take place.
It is not sufficient to just have the sender and the receiver; there should
also be cooperation and understanding between them. They should have
mutually accepted code of signals making up a common language. CODE;
the language of the message e.g. English, French, Arabic, Urdu etc.

Contd..
The text: the contents of the message.
The channel: the medium through which the message travels e.g.

letter, telephone, e-mail etc.

The setting: the social and the physical setting.
(A saint with his eyes closed says that he is communicating with
God. - no social communication)
(A person was lost in his thoughts with his eyes closed. When asked
he said he was communicating with self. - no social communication)
NOTE: the communication is termed to be effective only when the
receiver receives the message intended by the sender in the same
perspective. Other wise it is miscommunication.

To understand this lets see the communication cycle.

The Communication Process

The sender encodes the message and sends it through a channel.
The channel is nothing but the language used- words, signs,

objects (air or telephone wires), or combination of these.

The receiver receives the message, decodes it, and acts upon it.
The receiver responds to the sender in the form of feedback if the
message received is the same as the message sent.
If the message sent is not same as the receiver message then there
has been a breakdown in the communication, which may happen
due to noise.

FEEDBACK
The transmission of the receivers response to the sender is

called feedback. Feedback is essential as it is a barometer of

the effective communication.
The communication cycle is complete only when sender
receives the response from the receiver. Otherwise, the
message needs to be resent.
Even if the response is received, it may or may not be the
expected one, but once the response is received communication
is said to be successful, effective and complete.
The communication is fully effective if the desired response is
received by the sender of the message from the receiver.

Communication Environment
A well defined set-up, in which communication takes place, is the

communication environment. E.g. a class room is a communication

environment when a teacher delivers lecture to the students.
Essentials of Effective Communication:
A communication environment.
Co-operation between the sender and receiver.
Selection of appropriate channel. (Oral communication: air,
telephone), (written communication: documents, reports, etc),
(language act as a tool which is used through these channels to
exchange information).
Correct encoding and decoding of the message.
Receipt of the desired response and feedback.

Noise
Noise is defined as any unplanned interference in the communication

environment, which causes hindrance in the transmission of the message.

Noise distorts interpretation or the decoding part of the communication process.
Noise can be classified:
Channel noise: is any interference in the mechanics of the medium used to send
a message. E.g. in oral communication: distortion due to faulty background,
noise in telephone lines, or too high volume or pitch from loudspeakers. In
written communication: illegible handwriting can be termed as channel noise.
Channel noise develops externally.
Semantic noise: is generated internally resulting from errors in the message
itself. It may be because of connotative meaning of the word allowing the
meaning to be interpreted differently by the sender and the receiver. E.g. the
word condescend may be used in positive manner, implying graciousness or
dignity of manner, but the receiver might interpret it in a negative manner,
related to a (baseless) assumption of superiority. Other examples are ambiguous
sentence structure, faulty grammar, misspellings and incorrect punctuation.

LANGUAGE AS A TOOL OF COMMUNICATION

Effective communication is made possible with the help of

language.
Language employs combination of words to communicate ideas in
the meaningful way.
By changing the word order in a sentence, you can change its
meaning, and even make it meaningless. E.g. (I) word order
changed to change the meaning of the sentence:
I need them to bring coffee for me
I need me to bring the coffee for them.
(II) Word order changed to make the sentence meaningless:
Who took the keys of my car?
Who my took keys car of?

Contd
Language is directly dependent on people and cant exist in isolation.
Language arose out of the human need to communicate.
Primitive man communicated only with sign language and cries. Later, as

human beings became more interdependent and complex, language came into
being.
Though language is universal, it cant be denied that it is also specific to the
individuals. When you use it , you reflect your personality and your thoughts.
People use language to shape their experiences and everyone gives different
shape to their experiences because everyone has a different viewpoint.
Since language is not exact (i.e. its arbitrary: there is no obvious correlation
between the symbols and its meaning. E.g. what is the correlation between a
wooden plank balanced on for legs and a table), so it can lead to
misunderstandings.
Being aware of the basic characteristics of the language can help to understand
better and communicate more effectively.

CHARACTERISTIC OF LANGUAGE
According to the eminent linguists such as Noam Chomsky and
Ferdinand de Saussure, language is:
ARTIFICAL:
Language is created by people. It does not exist in isolation
or outside the minds of people. It is created by humans as
they need it.
Every symbol is attached to a particular thought or thing,
called REFERENT. E.g. the word AIDS (referent) was not
known till people got infected with this contagious disease.
Since there is no organic connection between a symbol and
its meaning. Humans attach meaning to words as they need
to and modify these meanings according to changing needs.
This is why we say language is artificial.

Contd
RESTRICTED:
When we think and translate and translate our thoughts into

language, some meaning is lost in the process.

No symbol or word can transmit the exact reality. That is
one reason you sometimes find yourself saying that you
cannot find words to express your feelings.
Language is only sketch of apparent and obvious. While
communicating, we must keep two things in mind:
We must avoid mistaking a changed reality for an unaltered
one because of unchanged language.
We need to use language as accurately as possible. When
required, we should corroborate it with other available
alternatives, such as non-verbal cues, graphical elements, or
audio-visual recordings.

Contd
ARBITRARY
There is no direct relation between a word and the idea or object it

represents. People speaking a particular language accept the fact that

certain symbols or sounds will represent a particular thing.
CREATIVE
Language is indeed very creative. Every year innumerable words are
added to the dictionary.
Language is borrowing in nature. E.g. alcohol from Arabic and boss
from Dutch.
Constructing portmanteau words (words made by combining the sound
and meaning of two different words): E.g. netiquette = net + etiquette,
edutainment = education + entertainment.
Back formation: where a word of one type usually a noun is reduced to
a word of another type, usually a verb. E.g. opt (verb) option (noun),
emote (verb) emotion (noun).

Contd
Meaning of words change over period of time.

E.g.:-

REPETITIVE
Language has the capacity of redundancy or repetition, which may either
impede or improve effective communication. E.g. A couple of girls are riding
their bicycles.
The first two are plural nouns: girls and bicycles. The third is the agreement
of the verb riding. The fourth and fifth is couple and their.
Excessive repetition, or redundancy, may lead to verbosity or wordiness
without contributing to the meaning. E.g. when you day All of you meet
together to see me in the afternoon at 3 pm. You a re using excessive words to
no purpose. Even if you leave out All of you and afternoon, no confusion
would arise.

Contd
RECURSIVE
Recursiveness is the characteristics of language which

enables you to generate any number of sentences using the

same basis grammatical templates. It also allows you to
express any idea thought, or feeling using the same finite
vocabulary. Recursiveness implies that there is no limit to
the potential; length of a sentence. E.g. this man who is
wearing a crumpled suit, which he borrowed from me to
wear to his interview, which was on Wednesday, which was
the day, it was raining..

LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Human communication takes place at various levels:
Extra-personal
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Organizational
Mass
Extra-personal communication:
Communication between human beings and non-human entities is extrapersonal communication. E.g. when your pet dog comes to you wagging its
tail as soon as you return home from work. A parrot responding to your
greeting is another example.
More than any other form this, form of communication requires perfect
coordination and understanding between the sender and the receiver as at
least one of them transmits information or responds in sign language only.

Contd
Intrapersonal communication:
Communication that takes place within the individual. E.g. feeling hot and

turning to cooler.
This kind of communication pertains to thinking, which is the basis of
information processing. Without such dialogue, you cant proceed to the further
levels of communication interpersonal and organizational.
Self-motivation, self determination and the like take place at the intrapersonal
level.
Interpersonal communication:
Communication at this level refers to the sharing of information among people.
It differs from other forms of communication in that there are few participants

involved, the interactants are in close physical proximity to each other, there are
many sensory channels used, and feedback is immediate.
Role of sender and receiver keep altering.
Since feedback is direct and immediate, doubts are clarified instantly.
Interpersonal communication can be formal or informal.

Contd
FORMAL COMMUNICATION: communication done

through the chain of command is known as formal

communication. It involves the transmission of official message
in the formal organization structure. Such communication is
planned and established by the management and clearly
indicates the authority relationship involved and these generally
are in writing e.g. orders, decisions, instructions, etc.
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION: does not flow through the

official channels of communication. It involves the spontaneous

expression of reactions and ideas and is usually done orally.
Hence it may carry incorrect and incomplete information. E.g.
communication with family, friends, shopping etc.

Contd
Organizational communication:
Communication in an organization takes place at different hierarchical

levels. Since a large number of employees are involved in several

different activities, the need to communicate becomes greater in an
organization. With a proper networking system, communication in an
organization is possible even without direct contact between employees.
This kind of communication is further divided into:
INTERNAL-OPERATIONAL: all communication that occurs in
conducting work within an organization is classified as internaloperational.
EXTERNAL-OPERATIONAL: the work related communication that
an organization does with people outside the organization is called
external-operational.
PERSONAL: any communication in an organization that is not related
to work or business is personal communication.

Contd
Mass communication:
For this kind of communication we need a mediator to transmit

information. There are several mass media such as journals, books,

television, and newspapers which mediate such communications.
Since the message is for large audience that is heterogeneous and
anonymous, the approach is impersonal.
This type of communication is more persuasive in nature than any other
form of communication and requires utmost care on the part of the
sender in encoding the message.
Oral communication through mass media requires some equipment,
such as microphones, amplifiers, etc. and written needs print or visual
media.
The characteristics of this type of communication are:
Large reach.
Impersonality.
Presence of gatekeeper (mediator: e.g. newspaper editor).

The Flow of Communication

Information flows in an organization both formally

and informally.
The term formal communication refers to
communication that follows the official hierarchy and
is required to do ones job.
It flows through formal channels-the main lines of
organizational communication.
Formal communication can flow in various directions
downward, upward, lateral or diagonal.

Contd
Downward Communication:
Downward communication flows from a manager, down the

chain of command.
When managers inform, instruct, advise or request their
subordinates, the communication flow is downward pattern.
This is generally used to convey routine information, new
policies or procedures, to seek clarification, to ask for an
analysis, etc.
Such communication increases awareness about the organization
among subordinates and employees and enables managers to
evaluate the performance of their subordinates.
Downward communication can take any form-memos, notices,
face to face interactions, or telephone conversations.

Contd
Upward Communication:
When the subordinates send reports to inform their superior or to

present their findings and recommendations, the communication flows

upward.
This type of communication keeps managers aware of how employees
feel about their jobs, colleagues and the organization in general.
Managers rely on upward communication for making certain decisions
or solving some problems which concern the organization.
In a highly authoritative environment, where down flow dominates,
upwards communication still takes place but it is limited to the
managerial ranks. Suggestion boxes, employee attitude surveys,
grievance procedures, superior-subordinate decisions (decisions taken
for the subordinate by his superior), reviews reports, statistical analyses,
etc. provide restricted information to top management.

Contd
Lateral or Horizontal Communication:
This form communication takes place between peer groups or hierarchically equivalent

employees.
Such communication is necessary to facilitate coordination, save time and bridge the
communication gap among various departments.
Diagonal or Cross-wise Communication:
This type of communication flows in all directions and cuts across functions and levels in

an organization.
Though this form of communication deviates from the normal chain of command, there is
no doubt that it is quick and efficient.
The increased use of e-mail also encourages cross-wise communication. Any employee
can communicate via e-mail with another employee, regardless of the receivers function
or status.
Since there is no specific line of command, diagonal communication is also referred to as
cross-wise, radial, or circular communication depending upon the structure of the
organization. For instance, managing director could directly call a supervisor and give
instructions.

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Formal Network Models: there are five communication

networks that come into play in formal communication in an

organization.
Chain Network: represend rents a vertical hierarchy in
which communication can flow only upward or downward.
We can find this type of network in direct line of authority
communication with no deviations.

Contd..
Y-Network: is in effect a multi-level hierarchy and a

combination of horizontal and vertical flow of

communication. If we turn the y upside down, we see two
subordinates reporting to one senior, with two levels of
authority above the latter.

Contd..
Wheel Network: refers to several subordinates reporting

to a superior. This is a combination of horizontal and

diagonal flow of communication. But here though the
subordinates are of equal rank, all of them report to one
superior, and without any interaction between themselves.

Contd..
Circle Network: allows employees to interact with

adjacent members but no further.

Contd..
All Channel Network: least structured, enables each

employee to communicate freely with the other. There is no

restriction who can communicate with whom. All are equal
as no one employee formally or informally assumes a
leading role. Hence, everybodys view are equally and
openly shared.

Contd..
NOTE: for effective use of communication networks, we need to
remember the following:
No single network is suitable for all occasions.
The wheel and all channel networks are preferred if speed of
communication is a priority.
The chain, Y and wheel networks serve best when accuracy is crucial.
Informal Network Models: besides flowing through the formal

networks, communication in an organization also travels along an

informal network- the GRAPEWINE.
GRAPEWINE: is an informal way of communication in which
information spreads quickly from one person to another through
conversation.

Patterns of informal communication

Single strand: message is passed from one person to

another along a single strand.

Contd..
Gossip: one person passes information to all others.

Contd..
Probability: each person tells others at random.

Contd..

Cluster: the most popular pattern of grapevine communication

refers to the flow of information in which some people tell a
selected few of the others. Which individual is active on the
grapevine often depends on the message. E.g. a message sparks
the interest of an employee may stimulate him or her to someone
else, whereas another message that is perceived to be of lesser
interest may never be transmitted.

Contd..
NOTE: To effectively use this channel, organizations: Should not ignore information received through the grapevine.
Should use this channel to supplement the formal channel.
Should identify but not threaten the main sources of information, and
Should try to understand the human relationship involved in grapevine
communication.

What is Technical and Professional Communication?

Communication about complex, highly-detailed problems, issues,
or subjects in the professional world, which helps audiences
visualize and understand information so they can make
informed and ethical decisions or take appropriate and safe
actions
Is significant in the workplace
Is done by all workers
Is a part of everyday life
Is an activity and a process
Involves problem solving
Is vital to the success of business
Communicates highly complex information to help in a highly
complex world

Contd..
Requires careful selection of content
Requires coherent and clear delivery of information
Requires precise arrangement of information
Includes simple, everyday information and

documents
Like recipes, road signs, product labels
Includes lengthier, more complex documents
Like computer manuals, detailed reports, and
NASA specifications

THE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL

COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION
Technical communication plays a pivotal role in an

organization, whether it is a business enterprise, an industry,

or an academic institution.
The success of any organization is largely recognized by the
quality and the quantity of the information flowing through
its personnel.
Technical communication can be divided into two parts: oral
and written. Both are equally important as it cannot be
specified which one of these is used more in an organization.
Some forms of oral and technical communication are
summarized in table below:

Contd..

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
WHAT IS NOISE?
Any interference in the message sent and message received leads to
the production of noise. The term communication barrier, or that
which inhibits or distorts the message, is an expression of the
concept of noise. Noise here does not mean cacophony, but a break
in the communication process. If noise occurs because of
technological factors, it is a smaller problem as it can be removed by
correcting the technological faults. However, if the noise is due to
human error, the parties involved in the communication process
needs to take corrective measures.
A barrier acts like a sieve, allowing only a part of message to filter

through; as a result, the desired response is not achieved.

Classification of Barriers
Intrapersonal.
Interpersonal.
Organizational.
Intrapersonal Barrier: individuals are unique because of their own

individual behaviour. This is mainly because of their differences in

experience, education, value, and personality. Each of us interprets the
same information in different ways as our thinking varies. Certain common
causes are responsible for an individuals inbuilt barrier. The following can
lead to intrapersonal barrier:
Wrong assumptions.
Varied perception.
Differing background.
Impervious categories.
Categorical thinking.

Contd..
Wrong Assumptions: are generally made because the sender and the

receiver does not realize that back grounds, education, and experience
of different people can be different. E.g. doctor tells patient to take
medicine SOS creating a barrier in communication by making a wrong
assumption about the knowledge of his patient. To avoid this, the
communicator should try to put himself in the shoes of the listner.
Varied Perception: individuals perceive situations different ways.
E.g. in case of a public argument and disagreement between two
individuals, if you are a friend or relative of one of them you are likely
to be biased. You may perceive your friends argument as correct, and
hence, may not be able to appreciate his opponents point of view. The
best way to overcome this barrier is to step back and take a wider
perspective of the issue.

Contd..
Differing Background: people vary in terms of education, culture, language,

environment, age, gender, financial status etc. our background plays a role in how we
interpret the message. To enhance your communication skills. It is necessary to know
the background of your audience. You can accordingly construct your message.
Empathy or identification with another person is the solution to this barrier. Use
language understood by the receiver to avoid ambiguity.
Wrong Inferences: this happens when we fail to distinguish between the actual and
what we assume to exist. Inferences supported by the facts are essential for the
professionals when they analyse material, solve problems and plan procedures.
Impervious categories: in general, we react positively to information only if it is in
consonance with our own views and attitudes. Conversely, when we receive
information that does not conform to our personal views, habits, and attitudes, or
appear unfavourable to us, we tend to react negatively or even disbelieve. Rejection,
distortion, and avoidance are three common, undesirable, and negative reactions to
unfavourable information. E.g. advances in technology are so rapid that some people
have difficulty in adapting it and instead of taking advantages of it they start criticizing
it.

Contd..
Categorical Thinking: there are some people who have know-it-all attitude.

Who think that they know everything about a particular subject and therefore
refuse to accept any further information on that topic. The know-it-all attitude
poses major barrier leading to failure of communication.
To sum up, good communication should:
Be non-judgmental.
Be empathetic.
Not assume anything.
Stick to the subject.
Listen and paraphrase.
Interpersonal Barrier: intrapersonal barriers stem from an individuals attitude

or habits, where as interpersonal barriers occur due to the inappropriate

transaction of words between two or more people. The two categories into which
this barrier can be classified are:
Inefficiency in communication skills.
Negative aspect nurturing in the climate.

Contd..
The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are:
Limited vocabulary.
Incongruity of verbal and nonverbal message: this is when your verbal
differs from your non-verbal aspects of communication. E.g. when you are
appreciating someone verbally but showing opposite reaction on the face.
Action speak louder than words, thus non-verbal cues provide deeper
insight into the senders message. Physical appearance often serves as one
of the most important non-verbal cues. First impression regarding people is
made on the basis of physical appearance.
Guidelines to improve your appearance:
Dress according to the occasion.
Wear neat and clean clothes.
Choose an appropriate hairstyle.
Wear clean and polished shoes.

Contd..
Emotional outburst.
Communication selectivity: paying attention to only a part of

the message because you are interested only in that part.

Cultural variation.
Poor listening skills.
Noise in channel.
Organizational Barriers: irrespective of the size, all
organizations have communication policies which describe the
protocol to be followed. It is the structure and the complexity
of this protocol that usually causes communication barriers.
Rigid hierarchical structure usually restricts the flow of
communication.

Contd..
The main organizational barriers are enumerated as below:
Too many transfer stations.
Fear of superiors.
Negative tendencies: caused due to conflict in ideas.
Use of inappropriate media: some of the media uses in organizations are graphs,
charts, telephone and fax, boards, emails, presentations, teleconferencing and
video conferencing. While choosing the media you should therefore keep in
mind the advantages, disadvantages and the potential barriers to communication.
Before sending a message, you should consider the following factors while
choosing the medium.
Time.
Cost.
Type of message.
Intended audience.
Information overload.

Contd..
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION:
constant practice and rigorous implementation of these ideas
will help you become excellent communicator.
Create an open communication environment.
Always keep the receiver in mind.
Avoid having too many transfer stations.
Do not communicate when you are emotionally disturbed.
Be aware of diversity in the culture, language, etc.
Use appropriate non-verbal cues.
Select the most suitable medium.
Analyse the feedback.

PROBLEM SOLVING IN WORKPLACE

COMMUNICATION

Contd..
Technical communicators solve interrelated problems of an
organization. The communicator as a problem solver has to solve
the following problems:
THE INFORMATION PROBLEM: because different people

doing different tasks have different informational needs.

THE PERSUASION PROBLEM: because people often disagree
about what the information means and what action should be
taken.
THE ETHICS PROBLEM: because the interests of your employer
may conflict with the interests of other people involved.
THE COLLABORATION PROBLEM: because an estimated 90%
of U.S workers spend at least part of their day in team situation

Contd..
Solving the Information Problem: How to provide accurate and
useful information?
Evaluation of different documents.
Study of previous analysis and reviews in consultation with others.
Prepare recommendation report.
Collaborate with the organization/company (for training etc).
Consensus on the conclusion reached (persuasion problem).
While solving the persuasion problem the following questions might
be faced:
How much explanation would be enough?
How to organize the information?
Are visuals needed?

Contd..

Solving the Persuasion Problem: How to influence people to see things my

way?
Resolve the disagreements within the team first.
Produce a report of teams consensus.
Explain pros and cons.
Balance political or any other pressure.
Prepare the case for interpretation. (Interpretation: the action of explaining
the meaning of something).
While solving the persuasion problem the following questions might be faced:
Are other interpretations possible?
Is there a better way?
Cant expect political or legal fallout? (Fallout: adverse results of situation
or action).
You have reckon with ethical implications of the writing, with the question
of doing the right thing.

Contd..
Solving the Ethical Problem: How to be honest and still keep my job?
Maintain standards for quality of products and safety of workers.
Report the dangers and threats.
Prepare urgent recommendation.
Speak out or remain silent.(ethics)
While solving the ethical problem the following questions might be faced:
Is this fair?
Who might benefit or suffer?
What other consequences could this have?
When solving various problems, you have to reckon with implications of
working in a team setting: much of your writing, done at the computer, will
be produced in collaboration with others (editor, managers, and graphics
artists); your audience will extend beyond your own culture.

Contd..
Solving Collaboration Problem: How to connect with all these
different colleagues?
Develop working relationship with people, you never met, of
other cultures, you know only via e-medium.
Collaborate in every process, we rarely work alone.
Almost every document for people outside your organization
will be reviewed for accuracy, appropriate, usefulness and
legality before it is finally approved.

PROBLEM SOLVING REQUIRES CREATIVE AND

CRITICAL THINKING
CREATIVE THINKING:
We explore new ideas.
We build on information.
We devise better ways of doing things.
We test the strength of our ideas or worth of our information.
CRITICAL THINKING:
Instead of accepting the idea at face value, we examine verify,
analyze, weigh alternative and consider consequences- at
every stage of that idea development.
We employ critical thinking to examine our evidence and our
reasoning, to discover new connections and new possibilities,
and to test the effectiveness and the limits of our solutions.

Contd..
We apply creative thinking throughout the four stages in writing
process.
STAGES IN THE WRITING PROCESS
Step1: We work with our ides and information.
Step2: We plan the document.
Step3: We draft the document.
Step4: We revise the document.

Contd..

As the arrows in figure above indicate, no one stage of the writing process is complete until all stages are complete.

Contd..
WRITING SHARPENS THINKING
Good writing is a process of thinking, writingrevising, thinking and revising, until the idea is fully
developed.
E.g. an engineer can develop better perspectives and
even new technical concepts while writing a report of
a project. Many engineers, at the completion of a
laboratory project, sense a new interpretation or see a
defect in the results and go back to the laboratory for
additional data, a more thorough analysis or a
modified design.

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING WITH A COMPUTER

BE AWARE OF COMPUTER JUNK: The ease of cranking out words

on a computer can produce long, windy pieces that say nothing. Cut
anything that fails to advance your meaning. [Check for ways to
achieve conciseness].
NEVER COFUSE STYLE WITH SUBSTANCE: laser printers and
choices of type-faces, type sizes, and other design options can produce
attractive documents. But not even the most attractive design redeems
a document whose content is worthless or inaccessible.
SAVE AND PRINT YOUR WORK OFTEN: save each paragraph as
you write it, print out each page as you complete it, and keep a copy of
your document on a backup disk.
CONSIDER THE BENEFITS OF REVISING FROM HARD COPY:
nothing beats scribbling on the printed page. The hard copy provides
the whole text, right in front of you.

Contd..
NEVER DEPEND ONLY ON AUTOMATED CHECKERS: not even the

most sophisticated writing aids can replace careful proof reading. A synonym
found in an electronic thesaurus may distort your meaning. The spell checker
cant differentiate among correctly spelled words such as their, theyre or
there or its versus its. And neither spell nor grammar checkers can
evaluate stylistic appropriateness (those subtle choices phrasing that
determine tone and emphasis). [Check limitations of computerized aids].
SELECT A DESIGN AND A TRANSMISSION MEDIUM THAT YOUR
AUDIENCE FAVOURS: Should the document be primarily verbal, virtual or
some combination? Should it travel by conventional mail, interoffice mail,
email? Who are the users and what would they prefer in this solution- the
solid feel of paper of hi-tech tour of a computer screen?
Research suggests that younger audiences prefer flashy graphics, elder
audience prefer traditional text and people in general trust text more that
visual images.

HUMAN FACTORS IN COMMUNICATION FAILURE

Ineffective communication occurs when obstacles or barriers

are present. These barriers are classified as physiological,

physical or psychosocial.
Physiological barriers result from some kind of
sensory dysfunction on the part of either the sender or the
receiver. Such things as hearing impairments, speech defects,
and even vision problems influence the effectiveness of
communication.
Physical barriers consist of elements in the environment
(such as noise) that contributes to the development of
physiological barriers (such as the inability to hear).

Contd..
Psychosocial-Barrier are

usually the result of ones

inaccurate perception of self or others; the presence of
some defense mechanism employed to cope with some form of
threatening anxiety; or the existence of factors such as age,
education, culture, language, nationality, or a multitude of
other socioeconomic factors. Psychological barriers are the
most difficult to identify and the most common cause of
communication failure or breakdown. A persons true
feelings are often communicated more accurately
through nonverbal communication than through verbal
communication.

END