1.1 Introduction to
chemistry
a) Give examples of the importance of
chemistry
b) Recognize chemistry as an
interdisciplinary tool
CHEMISTRY
The word chemistry is derived from the
Arabic word alchemy or al-kimia, where
al is Arabic word for the.
Chemistry is the study of matter and
the changes it undergoes.
THE IMPORTANCE OF
CHEMISTRY
The applications of chemistry are wideranging. Toiletries, drugs, plastics, glass, fuels,
dyes and metals are just a small sample of the
things that chemistry has provided for us.
There are also some far less obvious
applications of chemistry. Silicon, a chemical
element, is used widely electronics for
computers due to its semiconductor
properties. Metals, like aluminum, titanium and
steel, are used in the manufacture of planes,
trains, cars, bridges etc.
Matter
Mixture
Homogeneou
s
Separation by
physical
methods
Pure
substan
ce
Heterogene
ous
Compou
nd
Separation by
chemical
method
Eleme
nt
Particle
Atom
Isotope
Ion
Molecule
Cation
Diatomic
Anion
Polyato
mic
ATOM
An atom is the smallest unit of a
chemical element/compound.
In an atom, there are three subatomic
particles:
Packed in a small
- Proton (p)
nucleus
- Neutron (n) Move rapidly around
- Electron (e) the nucleus of an atom
Particle
Mass (g)
Charge Charg
Coulomb e Unit
-1.60 x 10-1
19
+1.60 x
10-19
0
+1
0
G
el ain
ec o
tr ne
on
Lo
el os
ec e
tr on
on e
Nucleon number
of bromine ion, A
= 79
The number of
neutrons
=AZ
= 79 35
= 44
Total charge
on the ion
Proton number
of bromine ion,
Z = 35
Number of
atoms that
formed the
ion
Nucleon number
of bromine
molecule, A = 79
The number of
neutrons
=AZ
= 79 35
= 44
Total charge
on the
molecule
Proton number
of bromine
molecule,
Z = 35
Number of
atoms that
formed the
molecule
ISOTOPE
Isotope are two or more atoms of the
same element that have the same
number of protons in their nucleus but
different number of neutrons.
Example
Give the number of protons, neutrons,
electrons and charge in each of the following
species:
Symbol
Proton
(p)
23+
Number of
Neutron (n) Electron
(e)
Charg
e
Solution
Exercise
Write the appropriate notation for each of
the following nuclide:
Symbol
A
B
C
D
Number of
Notatio
n of
Proton Neutro Electro
nuclide
n
n
2
1
1
7
2
2
1
7
2
0
1
10
ION
Cation
Anion
11 protons11 protons
11 electrons 10 electrons
17 protons17 protons
17 electrons 18 electrons
MOLECULE
A molecule is a cumulative of at least two
atoms joined together by bonds.
Diatomic molecule is a molecule that contains
only two atoms.
Eg: H2, O2, HCl, CO
Polyatomic molecule is a molecule that
contains more than two atoms.
Eg: H2O, NH3, O3
Example
Determine the relative atomic mass of
an element Y if the ratio of the atomic
mass of Y to carbon-12 atom is 0.45
Example
Calculate the relative molecular mass of C 5H5N
given:
Ar C = 12.01
Ar H = 1.01
Ar N = 14.01
Mr
= 5(Ar of C) + 5(Ar of H) + Ar of N
Exercise
Calculate the relative molecular mass
of:
a) B2H6
b) CH4
c) H2SO4
Solution
Mr B2H6 = (2 x 10.8) + (6 x 1)
= 27.6
Mr CH4 = (1 x 12) + (4 x 1)
= 16
Mr H2SO4 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 32.1) + (4 x
16)
= 98.1
Answer: 1 x 1014(MYR 10
Molar mass
The mass of 1 mole of an element or 1
mole of compound is referred as molar
mass.
Unit : g mol-1
Example:
- molar mass of Mg = 24.3 g mol-1
- molar mass of CH4 = (12 + 4) gmol-1
= 16 g mol-1
Number of
particles
(molecule/at
om/ion)
Mass in
grams
Number of
moles
Volume of
gas
(dm3 or L)
Example
In 14 g of N2, calculate:
i. Number of moles molecule if molar
mass is 28gmol-1
ii. Number of molecules
iii. Number of atoms
Solution
ii.
iii.
1 molecule of N2 contain 2 atoms of nitrogen
3.01 x 1023 molecules of N2 contains 2 x 3.01
x 1023 atom nitrogen
Therefore, number of nitrogen atoms is 6.02
x 1023
Exercise 1
Calculate the number of H atom in 1 mol of
NH3
Exercise 2
Calculate the number of bromide ions
in 2 moles of CaBr2
Exercise 3
Helium, He is a valuable gas used in
industry, low-temperature research,
deep-sea diving tanks and balloons.
How many moles are there in 6.46g of
He.
Exercise 4
Zinc is a silvery metal that is used in
making brass (with copper) and in
plating iron to prevent corrosion. How
many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mole of
Zn?
Answer: 23.3 g
RT=24 dm3mol-1
stp=22.4 dm3m
MOLE
mol
dm-3
dm3
Exercise 5
A balloon is filled with hydrogen gas at
s.t.p. If the volume of the balloon is
2.24 L, calculate the amount (mole) of
hydrogen gas.
Exercise 6
A sample of CO2 has a volume of 56 cm3 at
s.t.p. Calculate:
i. The number of moles of gas molecules
ii. The number of molecule
iii. The number of oxygen atoms in the
sample
The
relationship between empirical
formula and molecular formula is:
Where;
Example:
Empirical formula of glucose: CH2O
Molecular formula of glucose: (CH2O)6
= C6H12O6
Example
A sample of hydrocarbon contains
85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by
mass. Its molar mass is 56. Determine
the empirical formula and molecular
formula of the compound.
Solution
Empirical formula
= CH2
Molecular formula =
C4H8
Example
1.00g sample of compound A was
burnt in excess oxygen producing
2.52g of CO2 and 0.443g of H2O.
Determine the empirical formula of the
compound.
Solution
CXHYOZ + O2(excess) CO2 + H2O
in 1 mole of CO2 contains 1 mole of C atom
mass of C = 2.52g CO2 x 12.0g C = 0.687g
44 g CO2
in 1 mole of H2O contains 2 moles of H atom
mass of H = 0.443g H2O x 2g H = 0.0492 g
18 g H2O
mass of O = 1.00g 0.687g 0.0492g =
0.2638 g
Empirical formula :
C7H6O2
Exercise 1
A combustion of 0.202 g of an organic
sample that contains carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen produce 0.361g carbon
dioxide and 0.147 g water. If the relative
molecular mass of the sample is 148,
what is the molecular formula.
Answer : C6H12O4
Exercise 2
Determine the empirical formula of a
compound contains 2.1 % hydrogen,
65.3 % oxygen and 32.6 % sulfur.
Answer: H2SO4
Exercise 3
A 2.241 g sample of nickel reacts with
oxygen to form 2.852 g of the metal
oxide. Calculate the empirical formula of
the oxide.
Answer: NiO
Exercise 4
A hydrate of potassium carbonate has
the formula K2CO3.xH2O. From 10.00 g
of the hydrate, 7.95 g of anhydrous
salt was left after heating. Determine
the value of x in the formula
Answer: 2
A. MOLARITY (M)
The
number of moles of solute per
cubic decimetre (dm3) or litre (L) of
solution.
Also called molar concentration.
Example
Calculate the molarity of a solution of
1.71 g sucrose (C12H22O11) dissolved in
a 0.5 L of water.
Ar H=1, C=12, O=16
Solution
Exercise 1
How many grams of potassium
dichromate, K2Cr2O7 required to
prepare a solution of 250 mL with 2.16
M?
Ar K=39.1, Cr=52, O=16
Answer: 158.87 g
Exercise 2
A matriculation student prepared a
solution by dissolving 0.586 g of
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 in 250 mL
of water. Calculate its molarity.
Ar Na=23, C=12,O=16
Exercise 3
In a titration experiment, a student finds that
Answer: 0.1141 M
B. MOLALITY (m)
The
number of moles of solute
dissolved in 1 kg of solvent.
Also called molal concentration
The
unit is either m or mol kg-1 or molal
Note:
Example
Calculate the molality of sulfuric acid
solution containing 24.4 g of sulfuric
acid in 198 g of water, given that
molar mass of H2SO4 is 98.08 gmol-1.
Solution
Exercise 1
What is the molal concentration of a
solution prepared by dissolving 0.30 mol
of CuCl2 in 40.0 mol of water. Given,
molar mass of H2O is 18.02 gmol-1
Answer: 0.42 m
Exercise 2
What is the molality of a solution
containing 7.78g of urea (NH 2)2CO in
203 g water?
Answer: 0.639 m
Exercise 3
A solution containing 121.8g of
Zn(NO3)2 per litre has a density of
1.107gmL-1. Calculate its molal
concentration.
Answer: 0.653 m
Exercise 4
What is the molality of a 5.86M ethanol
(C2H5OH) solution whose density is 0.927
gmL-1?
Answer: 8.91m
Example
What is the mole fraction of CuCl2 in a
solution prepared by dissolving 0.30
mol of CuCl2 in
40.0 mol of water?
Given that molar mass of water is
18.02 gmol-1.
Solution
Alternative
method:
Exercise 1
A solution is prepared by mixing 55g of
toluene, C7H8 and 55g of
bromobenzene C6H5Br. What is the
mole fraction of each component?
Ar C=12.01, H=1.01, Br=79.9
Exercise 2
What is the mole fraction of CuSO4
prepared by dissolving 30 g of CuSO4
in 200 g of H2O? Determine the
molarity of the solution if the density
of solution is 1.08 gml-1.
D. PERCENTAGE BY MASS (%
w/w)
Percentage
Example
A sample of 0.892g of potassium
chloride, KCl is dissolved in 54.3g of
water. What is the percentage by mass
in the solution?
Solution
Exercise 1
Calculate the amount of water (in
grams) that must be added to 5.00 g
of urea in the preparation of a 16.2
percent by mass solution.
Answer: 25.86 g
Exercise 2
How many grams of NaOH and water are
needed to prepare 250.0 g of 1.00 %
NaOH solution?
Exercise 3
Hydrochloric acid can be purchased as
a solution of 37 % HCl. What is the
mass of this solution contains 7.50 g of
HCl?
Answer: 20.27 g
by volume is defined as
the percentage of volume of solute in
milliliter per volume of solution in
milliliter.
The unit is %
Example
A 200 mL of perfume contains 28 mL
of alcohol. What is the percentage by
volume of alcohol in this solution?
Solution
Exercise 1
A 300 mL solution contains 30 mL of
alcohol. What is the concentration of
alcohol by volume in this solution?
Answer: 10 %
DILUTION
results in reduced concentration
Dilution
Example
How to prepare 500 mL of a 2.75 M
solution of hydrochloric acid from an
8.9 M solution of the same acid.
Solution
Exercise 1
How many milliliters of water must be
added to 125 mL of 1.20 M KOH to give
0.5 M KOH?
Answer: 175 mL
Exercise 2
Describe how you would prepare 5.00
X 102 mL of a 1.75 mL of a 1.75 M
H2SO4 solution, starting with an 8.61 M
stock solution of H2SO4.
Answer: 102 mL
Exercise 3
You have 505 mL of a 0.125 M HCl
solution and you want to dilute it to
exactly 0.1 M. How much water should
you add? Assume volumes are
additive.
Answer: 126 mL
NEUTRALIZATION
Acid-base neutralization reactions are most
conveniently carried out using a technique
call titration.
In titration, a solution of accurately known
concentration, called standard solution, is
added gradually to other solution of unknown
concentration, until the chemical reaction
between the two solutions is complete.
The
missing information can be calculated
using the formula below:
Example
How many milliliters (mL) of a 0.610 M
NaOH solution are needed to
neutralize 20.0 mL of a 0.245 M H2SO4
solution?
Solution
Exercise 1
Calculate the concentration (in
molarity) of NaOH solution if 25.0 mL
of the solution are needed to
neutralize 17.4 mL of a 0.312 M HCl
solution.
Answer:0.217 M
Exercise 2
What volume of a 0.50 M HCl solution is
needed to neutralize each of the
following:
a) 10.0 mL of a 0.30 M NaOH solution
b) 10.0 mL of a 0.20 M Ba(OH)2 solution
Exercise 3
A
g sample of a sodium oxalate, Na 2C2O4 is
0.188
1.5 Stoichiometry
a) Name cations, anions and salts according to the
IUPAC nomenclature.
b) Determine the oxidation number of an element
in a chemical formula.
c) Write and balance:
i. chemical equation by inspection method
ii. redox equation by ion-electron method
d) Define limiting reactant and percentage yield.
e) Perform stoichiometric calculations using mole
concept including limiting reactant and
percentage yield.
IUPAC
nome
nclatu
re of
ions
OXID
ATIO
N
NUM
BER
BALA
NCE
EQUA
TION
STOI
CHI
OME
TRY
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE
Cations
For the metals of group 1, 2 and 13 :
Name the metals followed by the word ions
e.g :
Anions
Monoatomic ions have names that ended with
ide
e.g :
F- : fluoride ion,
Salts
When a metal combines with a
nonmetal element, the metal (cation)
is named before the nonmetal (anion)
e.g: Fe2(SO4)3: Iron(III) sulphate
FeCl3: Iron(III) chloride
CuCl2 : Copper(II) chloride
MnSO4: Manganese (II) sulphate
Exercise
Name the following
ions/compounds :
NH4+ , OH- , CN- , PO43- , ClO3- ,
NO3- , MnO
MnO2 , Cu (NO3)2 , KIO3 , MnO4- ,
NH4ClO3
OXIDATION NUMBER
Redox reaction is a reaction that involves
both reduction and oxidation.
Oxidation
The substance
loses one or more
electrons
Increase in
oxidation number
Act as an reducing
agent (reductant)
Reduction
The substance
gains one or more
electrons
Decrease in
oxidation number
Act as an oxidizing
agent (oxidant)
Find
oxidation
number
Direct
Free
element
Monoato
mic ion
Calculate
Molecule
Polyatom
ic ion
1. In a free element , as
an atom or a molecule
the oxidation number is
zero
2. For monoatomic
ion, the oxidation
number is equal to
the charge on the
ion
4. Hydrogen is +1
except in metal
hydrides (-1)
5. Oxygen is -2 except in
peroxide (-1) and when
combine with fluorine
(+2)
Oxidation
number must be
in whole number
or fraction but
not in decimal
form!
7. For polyatomic ions, the total
oxidation number of all atoms that
made up the polyatomic ion must be
equal to the net charge of the ion
Exercise
Find oxidation number for the
underlined
atoms
Na
HCl
Br2
Cl2O7
Al3+
S2NaF
HCl
NaH
MgH2
Exercise
Find oxidation number for the
underlined
atoms
MgO
HNO
3
H2O
NH4+
H2O2
MnO4-
OF2
Cr2O72-
KMnO4
NO3-
Exercise
Assign the oxidation number of Mn in the
following chemical compounds:
(i)MnO2 (ii)MnO4Assign the oxidation number of Cl in the
following chemical compounds:
(i)KClO3 (ii)Cl2O72Assign the oxidation number of following:
(i)Cr in K2Cr2O7 (ii)U in UO22+ (iii)C in C2O42-
BALANCE EQUATION
CHEMICAL EQUATION
INSPECTION METHOD
REDOX EQUATION
ION-ELECTRON METHOD
Chemical equation
A chemical equation shows a chemical
reaction using symbols for the reactants and
products.
The formulae of the reactants are written on
the left side of the equation while the products
are on the right side.
The total number of atoms of each element is
the same on both sides in a balanced
equation.
w
reacta
nt
produc
t
Example
Balance
Exercise
Balance
Redox equation
When we balance a chemical reaction
equation, the primary concern is to obey the
principle of conservation of mass - the total
mass of the reactants must be equal the
total mass of the products.
This is done by conserving and accounting
for atoms.
Example
Balance
Solution
1. Divide the equation into two half equation,
one involving oxidation and the other
reduction:
+2
+3
+7
+2
Other elements
besides oxygen
and hydrogen are
balanced,
therefore no
changes made!
+7
+3
+2
4.
Add the two half equation by cancelling
the same species that appears on
opposite sides but adding together the
species that appears on the same side
Exercise 1
Balance
the following in acidic
solution:
Answer:
Exercise 2
Balance
Answer:
Basic solution
1
2
Example
Balance
Solution
1. Divide the equation into two half equation,
one involving oxidation and the other
reduction:
+3
+4
+5
-1
Other elements
besides oxygen
and hydrogen are
balanced,
therefore no
changes made!
+5
+1
-1
4.
Add the two half equation by cancelling
the same species that appears on
opposite sides but adding together the
species that appears on the same side
12
H2O
15
H2O
Exercise 1
Balance
Answer:
Exercise 2
the following redox equations:
Balance
a) In acidic solution
b) In basic solution
STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.
Whether the units given for reactants (or
products) are moles, grams or liters, we use
moles to calculate the amount of reactant
used or product formed in a reaction.
This approach is called mole method, which
means the stoichiometric coefficients in a
chemical equation can be interpreted as the
number of moles of each substance.
For
example:
The stoichiometry tells us that:
1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2 to form
2 moles of NH3
For convenience, we can write as:
1 mol N2 3 mol H2 2 mol NH3
Stoichiometry can be used for calculating the
species we are interested in during a reaction
Example
How many moles of hydrochloric acid,
HCl do we need to react with 0.5 moles
of zinc?
Solution
From equation:
1 mol Zn 2 mol HCl
If we have 0.5 mol Zn:
0.5 mol Zn mol HCl
Therefore, the amount of HCl required
is 1 mol
Exercise 1
How many moles of H2O will be formed
when 0.25 moles of C2H5OH burns in
oxygen?
Exercise 2
A 16.50 mL 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution
is needed to oxidize 20.00mL of a
FeSO4 solution in an acidic medium.
What is the concentration of the FeSO4
solution? The net ionic equation is:
Exercise 3
How
many milliliters of 0.112 M HCl will react
exactly with the sodium carbonate in 21.2
mL of
0.150 M Na2CO3 according to the following
equation?
Answer:56.8mL
Exercise 4
10.64
g of metal oxide M2O3 are reacted with
excess hydrogen gas and produces 3.78 g of
water and metal M as shown by the equation:
Limiting reactant
A limiting reactant is the reactant that
is completely consumed in a reaction
and limits the amount of products
formed.
An excess reactant is the reactant that
is not completely consumed in a
reaction and remains at the end of the
reaction.
For
the first method, consider the industrial
synthesis of methanol (CH3OH):
Solution:
Compare product (CH3OH) with reactant CO:
From equation;
1 mol CO 1 mol CH3OH
If we have 4 moles of CO;
4 mol CO 4 mol CH3OH
The amount of product formed is 4 moles
Compare
product (CH3OH) with reactant
H 2:
From equation;
2 mol H2 1 mol CH3OH
If we have 6 moles of H2;
6 mol H2 3 mol CH3OH
The amount of product formed is 3 moles
H2 produce less product compared to CO.
Therefore, H2 is the limiting reactant
For
the second method, consider the same
reaction:
Solution:
From the equation;
1 mol CO 2 H2
If we have 4 moles of CO;
4 mol of CO = 8 mol H2 (nneeded)
From question, given that navailable for H2 is 6
moles
navailable<nneeded
Therefore, H2 is the limiting reactant.
Solution:
From the equation;
1 mol S 3 F2
If we have 4 moles of S;
4 mol of S = 12 mol F 2 (nneeded)
From question, given that navailable for F2 is 10
moles
navailable<nneeded
Therefore, F2 is the limiting reactant.
Exercise 1
Determine
Exercise 2
How
many moles of CO2 can be
collected if 0.020 moles of CaCO3 is
added to 100 cm3 of 0.50 mol nitric
acid?
Exercise 3
C
is prepared by reacting A and B:
Percentage yield
Theoretical yield is the maximum
obtainable yield, predicted by the
balanced equation.
The actual yield is the amount of product
actually obtained from a reaction and it is
almost always less than the theoretical
yield.
The
higher the amount of product formed,
the reaction is said to be more efficient.
Chemists use percentage yield to quote
efficiency of a reaction.
Percentage yield is the ratio of the actual
yield to the theoretical yield multiply by
100%
Example (method 1)
1.24
g of methyl salicylate, C8H8O3 or
oil of
wintergreen, is prepared by heating
1.50 g of
salicylic acid, C7H6O3 with 11.20 g of
methanol,
CH3OH
Solution
C7H6O3:
From equation;
1 mol C7H6O3 1 mol C8H8O3
If we have moles of C7H6O3;
mol C7H6O3 mol C8H8O3
Compare
product (C8H8O3) with reactant CH3OH:
From equation;
1 mol CH3OH 1 mol C8H8O3
If we have moles of CH 3OH;
mol CH3OH mol C8H8O3
C8H8O3 produce less product compared to
CH3OH.
Therefore, C8H8O3 is the limiting reactant
Exercise 1
In
a certain experiment, 14.6g of SbF3 was allowed to
react with CCl4 in excess. After the reaction was
finished, 8.62g of CCl2F2 was obtained. (Ar Sb = 122,
F = 19, C= 12, Cl = 35.5)
i.
Exercise 2
(C2H4), an important industrial
Ethylene
Exercise 3
dichloride (S2Cl2) is prepared by
Disulfide
Percentage of composition
Example
5.00
Solution
1 mol H2 1 mol Zn
0.05338 mol H2 0.05338 mol Zn
Exercise 1
What mass of lead could be obtained
from 90.00 grams of lead(II) oxide ore
which is only 28.55 % pure?
Answer: 25.70 g
Exercise 2
In an experiment, a sample of impure zinc
weighing 0.198 g is allowed to react with
an excess nitric acid, HNO 3 to produce zinc
nitrate solution and hydrogen gas. Assume
that only pure zinc is completely reacted
with nitric acid, calculate the percentage of
pure zinc in the impure sample if 5.46X10 -3
g of hydrogen gas is produced.
Answer: 89.9 %
Exercise 3
A sample of 1.55 g of iron ore is dissolved in an
acidic solution in which the iron is converted to Fe 2+.
The solution formed is then titrated with KMnO 4 to
oxidize Fe2+ to Fe3+ while MnO4- ions are reduced to
Mn2+. 92.95cm3 of 0.02 M KMnO4 is required for the
titration to reach the equivalence point.
a) Write the balanced equation for the reaction of
the titration
b) Calculate the percentage of iron in the sample
Answer: (b)33.4 %