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MATTER

1.1 Introduction to
chemistry
a) Give examples of the importance of
chemistry
b) Recognize chemistry as an
interdisciplinary tool

CHEMISTRY
The word chemistry is derived from the
Arabic word alchemy or al-kimia, where
al is Arabic word for the.
Chemistry is the study of matter and
the changes it undergoes.

THE IMPORTANCE OF
CHEMISTRY
The applications of chemistry are wideranging. Toiletries, drugs, plastics, glass, fuels,
dyes and metals are just a small sample of the
things that chemistry has provided for us.
There are also some far less obvious
applications of chemistry. Silicon, a chemical
element, is used widely electronics for
computers due to its semiconductor
properties. Metals, like aluminum, titanium and
steel, are used in the manufacture of planes,
trains, cars, bridges etc.

Chemistry helps to keep our water clean,


ensure our food is safe to eat, protect the
environment, make our medicines and are
instrumental in the development of new
materials.
Chemistry also can be observed in simple
daily life. For example, from experience
gained in the kitchen; from observing that
oil and water do not mix and the boiling
water left on the stove will evaporate.

Everyday we observe such changes without


thinking about their chemical nature. The
purpose of chemistry subject is to make you
think like a chemist, to look at macroscopic
world (the things we can see, touch and
measure directly) and visualize the particles
and events of the microscopic world.

Macroscopic and microscopic view

Matter

Mixture

Homogeneou
s

Separation by
physical
methods

Pure
substan
ce

Heterogene
ous
Compou
nd

Separation by
chemical
method

Eleme
nt

Matter is anything that occupies space and


has mass.
Element is a substance composed by identical
atoms that cannot be separated into simpler
substances by chemical means.
Compound is a substance that composed of
two or more elements which are chemically
combined.

Substance is a form of matter that has a


definite (constant) composition and distinct
properties.
Mixture is a combination of two or more
substances in which the substances retain
their distinct identities.

Homogeneous mixture is a mixture that has


no visible boundaries between the
components (also called as solution).
Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that has
one or more visible boundaries between the
components.

Note: Elements are composed of extremely small particles


called atoms

Particle
Atom

Isotope

Ion

Molecule

Cation

Diatomic

Anion

Polyato
mic

1.2 Atoms and molecules


a) Describe proton, electron and neutron in
term of the relative mass and relative charge
b) Define proton number, Z, nucleon number, A
and isotopes
c) Write isotopic notation
d) Define relative atomic mass, Ar and relative
molecular mass, Mr based on the C-12 scale

ATOM
An atom is the smallest unit of a
chemical element/compound.
In an atom, there are three subatomic
particles:
Packed in a small
- Proton (p)
nucleus
- Neutron (n) Move rapidly around
- Electron (e) the nucleus of an atom

Particle

Mass (g)

Electron 9.10 x 1028


(e)
Proton (p) 1.67x 10-24
Neutron 1.67x 10-24
(n)

Charge Charg
Coulomb e Unit
-1.60 x 10-1
19

+1.60 x
10-19
0

+1
0

Nucleon number (A) is the total


number of proton and neutron found in
the nucleus of the atom.
Nucleon number = p + n
Nucleon number is also called mass
number.

Proton number (Z) is the total number


of proton found in the nucleus of the
atom.
Proton number is also called atomic
number.
In neutral atoms, the number of proton
is equal to the number of electrons.

G
el ain
ec o
tr ne
on

Lo
el os
ec e
tr on
on e

An atom can be represented by isotope


notation:

Nucleon number
of bromine ion, A
= 79
The number of
neutrons
=AZ
= 79 35
= 44

Total charge
on the ion

Proton number
of bromine ion,
Z = 35

Number of
atoms that
formed the
ion

Nucleon number
of bromine
molecule, A = 79
The number of
neutrons
=AZ
= 79 35
= 44

Total charge
on the
molecule

Proton number
of bromine
molecule,
Z = 35

Number of
atoms that
formed the
molecule

ISOTOPE
Isotope are two or more atoms of the
same element that have the same
number of protons in their nucleus but
different number of neutrons.

Figure: Three isotopes of


hydrogen

Example
Give the number of protons, neutrons,
electrons and charge in each of the following
species:
Symbol

Proton
(p)

23+

Number of
Neutron (n) Electron
(e)

Charg
e

Solution

Exercise
Write the appropriate notation for each of
the following nuclide:
Symbol

A
B
C
D

Number of
Notatio
n of
Proton Neutro Electro
nuclide
n
n
2
1
1
7

2
2
1
7

2
0
1
10

ION

Cation

Anion

A positive charged ion formed


when a neutral atom lose
electrons

A negative charged ion


formed when a neutral atom
gain electrons

11 protons11 protons
11 electrons 10 electrons

17 protons17 protons
17 electrons 18 electrons

MOLECULE
A molecule is a cumulative of at least two
atoms joined together by bonds.
Diatomic molecule is a molecule that contains
only two atoms.
Eg: H2, O2, HCl, CO
Polyatomic molecule is a molecule that
contains more than two atoms.
Eg: H2O, NH3, O3

Relative atomic mass, Ar:


A mass of one atom of an element
compared to 1/12 mass of one atom of
12
C with the mass 12

Example
Determine the relative atomic mass of
an element Y if the ratio of the atomic
mass of Y to carbon-12 atom is 0.45

Relative molecular mass, Mr:


A mass of one molecule of a compound
compared to 1/12 mass of one atom of 12C
with the mass 12
The relative molecular mass of a compound
is the summation of the relative atomic
masses of all atoms in a molecular formula.

Example
Calculate the relative molecular mass of C 5H5N
given:
Ar C = 12.01
Ar H = 1.01
Ar N = 14.01
Mr

= 5(Ar of C) + 5(Ar of H) + Ar of N

= 5(12.01) + 5(1.01) + 14.01


= 60.05 + 5.05 + 14.01
= 79.11

Exercise
Calculate the relative molecular mass
of:
a) B2H6
b) CH4
c) H2SO4

Solution
Mr B2H6 = (2 x 10.8) + (6 x 1)
= 27.6
Mr CH4 = (1 x 12) + (4 x 1)
= 16
Mr H2SO4 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 32.1) + (4 x
16)
= 98.1

1.3 Mole concept

a) Define mole in terms of mass of carbon-12 and


Avogadro constant, NA.
b) Interconvert between moles, mass, number of
particles, molar volume of gas at STP and room
temperature.
c) Define the terms empirical and molecular
formulae.
d) Determine empirical and molecular formulae
from mass composition or combustion data.

A mole is defined as the amount of


substance which contains equal
number of particles (atoms /
molecules / ions) as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

One mole of carbon-12 atom has a


mass of exactly 12 grams and contains
6.02 x 1023 atoms.
The value 6.02 x 1023 is known as
Avogadros constant or Avogadros
number.

NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

HOW BIG IS ONE MOLE?


Consider what would happen if 1 mole
of 10 cent coins were distributed
equally among the earth's population,
which is currently estimated at 6 x 109.
How many coin would each person
get?

Answer: 1 x 1014(MYR 10

A mole of aluminium is easy to show.


That is just 26 or so grams. How about
a mole of salt grains?

Here is a picture of 41 grains of salt.

How big would a mole be?

If you were to put it in a cube, it would


be 44 km tall (27 miles) yeah, thats
high.

Molar mass
The mass of 1 mole of an element or 1
mole of compound is referred as molar
mass.
Unit : g mol-1
Example:
- molar mass of Mg = 24.3 g mol-1
- molar mass of CH4 = (12 + 4) gmol-1
= 16 g mol-1

Number of
particles
(molecule/at
om/ion)

Mass in
grams

Number of
moles

Volume of
gas
(dm3 or L)

Example
In 14 g of N2, calculate:
i. Number of moles molecule if molar
mass is 28gmol-1
ii. Number of molecules
iii. Number of atoms

Solution

ii.

iii.
1 molecule of N2 contain 2 atoms of nitrogen
3.01 x 1023 molecules of N2 contains 2 x 3.01
x 1023 atom nitrogen
Therefore, number of nitrogen atoms is 6.02
x 1023

Exercise 1
Calculate the number of H atom in 1 mol of
NH3

Answer: 1.09 x 1024 atoms

Exercise 2
Calculate the number of bromide ions
in 2 moles of CaBr2

Answer: 2.41 x 1024 ions

Exercise 3
Helium, He is a valuable gas used in
industry, low-temperature research,
deep-sea diving tanks and balloons.
How many moles are there in 6.46g of
He.

Answer: 1.61 mol

Exercise 4
Zinc is a silvery metal that is used in
making brass (with copper) and in
plating iron to prevent corrosion. How
many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mole of
Zn?

Answer: 23.3 g

RT=24 dm3mol-1
stp=22.4 dm3m

MOLE

mol
dm-3

dm3

Standard Temperature and Pressure


(STP)
273.15 K (0C)
1 atm
1 mole of gas has a volume of 22.4
dm3 at STP
Derived from ideal
gas equation
PV=nRT

Room temperature (RT)


298.15 K (25C)
1 atm
1 mole of gas has a volume of 24.0
dm3 at RT

Exercise 5
A balloon is filled with hydrogen gas at
s.t.p. If the volume of the balloon is
2.24 L, calculate the amount (mole) of
hydrogen gas.

Answer: 0.100 mol

Exercise 6
A sample of CO2 has a volume of 56 cm3 at
s.t.p. Calculate:
i. The number of moles of gas molecules
ii. The number of molecule
iii. The number of oxygen atoms in the
sample

Answer: (i)2.5x10-3mol (ii) 1.5x1021


(iii)3.0x1021

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR


FORMULAE
Empirical formula is a chemical
formula that shows the simplest ratio
of all elements in a molecule
Molecular formula is a formula that
shows the actual number of atoms of
each element in a molecule

The
relationship between empirical
formula and molecular formula is:

Where;

Example:
Empirical formula of glucose: CH2O
Molecular formula of glucose: (CH2O)6
= C6H12O6

Example
A sample of hydrocarbon contains
85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by
mass. Its molar mass is 56. Determine
the empirical formula and molecular
formula of the compound.

Solution

Empirical formula
= CH2

Molecular formula =
C4H8

Example
1.00g sample of compound A was
burnt in excess oxygen producing
2.52g of CO2 and 0.443g of H2O.
Determine the empirical formula of the
compound.

Solution
CXHYOZ + O2(excess) CO2 + H2O
in 1 mole of CO2 contains 1 mole of C atom
mass of C = 2.52g CO2 x 12.0g C = 0.687g
44 g CO2
in 1 mole of H2O contains 2 moles of H atom
mass of H = 0.443g H2O x 2g H = 0.0492 g
18 g H2O
mass of O = 1.00g 0.687g 0.0492g =
0.2638 g

Empirical formula :
C7H6O2

Exercise 1
A combustion of 0.202 g of an organic
sample that contains carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen produce 0.361g carbon
dioxide and 0.147 g water. If the relative
molecular mass of the sample is 148,
what is the molecular formula.

Answer : C6H12O4

Exercise 2
Determine the empirical formula of a
compound contains 2.1 % hydrogen,
65.3 % oxygen and 32.6 % sulfur.

Answer: H2SO4

Exercise 3
A 2.241 g sample of nickel reacts with
oxygen to form 2.852 g of the metal
oxide. Calculate the empirical formula of
the oxide.

Answer: NiO

Exercise 4
A hydrate of potassium carbonate has
the formula K2CO3.xH2O. From 10.00 g
of the hydrate, 7.95 g of anhydrous
salt was left after heating. Determine
the value of x in the formula

Answer: 2

1.4 Concentration unit


a) Define and perform calculations for each
of the following concentration
measurements:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

amount concentration (molarity), c


molality, m
mole fraction, X
percentage by mass, %w/w
percentage by volume, %v/v

b) Perform calculation for the concentration

Solute is a substance that present in smaller


amount. It can either be in solid or liquid
phase.
Solvent is the substance present in larger
amount.
Solution is a homogeneous mixture formed
when an amount of solute dissolved
completely in a solvent.

Units of concentration of a solution:


A. Molarity (c)
B. Molality (m)
C. Mole Fraction (X)
D.Percentage by Mass (% w/w )
E. Percentage by Volume (% V/V )

A. MOLARITY (M)
The
number of moles of solute per
cubic decimetre (dm3) or litre (L) of
solution.
Also called molar concentration.

The unit is either M or molL-1 or moldm3


or molar
Note:
dm3=L
cm3=mL

Example
Calculate the molarity of a solution of
1.71 g sucrose (C12H22O11) dissolved in
a 0.5 L of water.
Ar H=1, C=12, O=16

Solution

Exercise 1
How many grams of potassium
dichromate, K2Cr2O7 required to
prepare a solution of 250 mL with 2.16
M?
Ar K=39.1, Cr=52, O=16

Answer: 158.87 g

Exercise 2
A matriculation student prepared a
solution by dissolving 0.586 g of
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 in 250 mL
of water. Calculate its molarity.
Ar Na=23, C=12,O=16

Answer: 0.0221 mol L-1

Exercise 3
In a titration experiment, a student finds that

23.48 mL of NaOH solution are needed to


neutralize 0.5468 g of potassium hydrogen
phthalate (KHP). What is the concentration (in
molarity) of the NaOH solution?

Answer: 0.1141 M

B. MOLALITY (m)
The
number of moles of solute
dissolved in 1 kg of solvent.
Also called molal concentration

The
unit is either m or mol kg-1 or molal
Note:

Example
Calculate the molality of sulfuric acid
solution containing 24.4 g of sulfuric
acid in 198 g of water, given that
molar mass of H2SO4 is 98.08 gmol-1.

Solution

Exercise 1
What is the molal concentration of a
solution prepared by dissolving 0.30 mol
of CuCl2 in 40.0 mol of water. Given,
molar mass of H2O is 18.02 gmol-1

Answer: 0.42 m

Exercise 2
What is the molality of a solution
containing 7.78g of urea (NH 2)2CO in
203 g water?

Answer: 0.639 m

Exercise 3
A solution containing 121.8g of
Zn(NO3)2 per litre has a density of
1.107gmL-1. Calculate its molal
concentration.

Answer: 0.653 m

Exercise 4
What is the molality of a 5.86M ethanol
(C2H5OH) solution whose density is 0.927
gmL-1?

Answer: 8.91m

C. MOLE FRACTION (X)


Mole
fraction is the ratio of the number of

moles of one component to the total number


of moles of all component present.

Mole fraction has no unit


Note:
Mole fraction of a component is always
smaller than 1.
Total mole fraction of all component in
a mixture is equal to 1.

Example
What is the mole fraction of CuCl2 in a
solution prepared by dissolving 0.30
mol of CuCl2 in
40.0 mol of water?
Given that molar mass of water is
18.02 gmol-1.

Solution

Alternative

method:

Exercise 1
A solution is prepared by mixing 55g of
toluene, C7H8 and 55g of
bromobenzene C6H5Br. What is the
mole fraction of each component?
Ar C=12.01, H=1.01, Br=79.9

Answer: XC H =0.63, XC H Br=0.37


7

Exercise 2
What is the mole fraction of CuSO4
prepared by dissolving 30 g of CuSO4
in 200 g of H2O? Determine the
molarity of the solution if the density
of solution is 1.08 gml-1.

Answer: 0.0166, 0.883 M

D. PERCENTAGE BY MASS (%
w/w)
Percentage

by mass is defined as the


percentage of the mass of solute per
mass of solution.
The unit is %

Example
A sample of 0.892g of potassium
chloride, KCl is dissolved in 54.3g of
water. What is the percentage by mass
in the solution?

Solution

Exercise 1
Calculate the amount of water (in
grams) that must be added to 5.00 g
of urea in the preparation of a 16.2
percent by mass solution.

Answer: 25.86 g

Exercise 2
How many grams of NaOH and water are
needed to prepare 250.0 g of 1.00 %
NaOH solution?

Answer: 2.5 g and 247.5 g

Exercise 3
Hydrochloric acid can be purchased as
a solution of 37 % HCl. What is the
mass of this solution contains 7.50 g of
HCl?

Answer: 20.27 g

E. PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME (% v/v)


Percentage

by volume is defined as
the percentage of volume of solute in
milliliter per volume of solution in
milliliter.
The unit is %

Example
A 200 mL of perfume contains 28 mL
of alcohol. What is the percentage by
volume of alcohol in this solution?

Solution

Exercise 1
A 300 mL solution contains 30 mL of
alcohol. What is the concentration of
alcohol by volume in this solution?

Answer: 10 %

DILUTION
results in reduced concentration
Dilution

of the solution, but it does not change


the number of moles of solute in the
solution.

The number of moles of solute before


dilution is equal to the number of moles
of solute after dilution,
Therefore:

Example
How to prepare 500 mL of a 2.75 M
solution of hydrochloric acid from an
8.9 M solution of the same acid.

Solution

Exercise 1
How many milliliters of water must be
added to 125 mL of 1.20 M KOH to give
0.5 M KOH?

Answer: 175 mL

Exercise 2
Describe how you would prepare 5.00
X 102 mL of a 1.75 mL of a 1.75 M
H2SO4 solution, starting with an 8.61 M
stock solution of H2SO4.

Answer: 102 mL

Exercise 3
You have 505 mL of a 0.125 M HCl
solution and you want to dilute it to
exactly 0.1 M. How much water should
you add? Assume volumes are
additive.

Answer: 126 mL

NEUTRALIZATION
Acid-base neutralization reactions are most
conveniently carried out using a technique
call titration.
In titration, a solution of accurately known
concentration, called standard solution, is
added gradually to other solution of unknown
concentration, until the chemical reaction
between the two solutions is complete.

The
missing information can be calculated
using the formula below:

The formula takes the assumption that exact


equal number of moles of acid and base
have been added, and equivalence point has
been reached.

Example
How many milliliters (mL) of a 0.610 M
NaOH solution are needed to
neutralize 20.0 mL of a 0.245 M H2SO4
solution?

Solution

Exercise 1
Calculate the concentration (in
molarity) of NaOH solution if 25.0 mL
of the solution are needed to
neutralize 17.4 mL of a 0.312 M HCl
solution.

Answer:0.217 M

Exercise 2
What volume of a 0.50 M HCl solution is
needed to neutralize each of the
following:
a) 10.0 mL of a 0.30 M NaOH solution
b) 10.0 mL of a 0.20 M Ba(OH)2 solution

Answer: (a)6.0 mL (b)8.0 mL

Exercise 3
A
g sample of a sodium oxalate, Na 2C2O4 is
0.188

dissolved in water, acidified and titrated against


KMnO4 solution. A volume of 17.5 mL of KMnO 4
solution is needed for the titration as shown below:

Calculate the number of moles of Na 2C2O4


prepared and the molarity of KMnO 4 solution.
Answer: 1.43 x 10-3 moles, 0.032 M

1.5 Stoichiometry
a) Name cations, anions and salts according to the
IUPAC nomenclature.
b) Determine the oxidation number of an element
in a chemical formula.
c) Write and balance:
i. chemical equation by inspection method
ii. redox equation by ion-electron method
d) Define limiting reactant and percentage yield.
e) Perform stoichiometric calculations using mole
concept including limiting reactant and
percentage yield.

IUPAC
nome
nclatu
re of
ions

OXID
ATIO
N
NUM
BER

BALA
NCE
EQUA
TION

STOI
CHI
OME
TRY

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE
Cations
For the metals of group 1, 2 and 13 :
Name the metals followed by the word ions
e.g :

Na+ : sodium ion,

Al3+ : aluminium ion

For the metal with more oxidation states:


Roman numerals are used to indicate the oxidation
state.
e.g : Cu2+ : copper(II) ion, Fe3+ : iron(III) ion

Anions
Monoatomic ions have names that ended with
ide
e.g :

F- : fluoride ion,

O2- : oxide ion


Other polyatomic anions have their own names
e.g : CO32- : carbonate ion,
SO42- : sulphate ion,
Cr2O72- : dichromate ion

Salts
When a metal combines with a
nonmetal element, the metal (cation)
is named before the nonmetal (anion)
e.g: Fe2(SO4)3: Iron(III) sulphate
FeCl3: Iron(III) chloride
CuCl2 : Copper(II) chloride
MnSO4: Manganese (II) sulphate

Exercise
Name the following
ions/compounds :
NH4+ , OH- , CN- , PO43- , ClO3- ,
NO3- , MnO
MnO2 , Cu (NO3)2 , KIO3 , MnO4- ,
NH4ClO3

OXIDATION NUMBER
Redox reaction is a reaction that involves
both reduction and oxidation.
Oxidation
The substance
loses one or more
electrons
Increase in
oxidation number
Act as an reducing
agent (reductant)

Reduction
The substance
gains one or more
electrons
Decrease in
oxidation number
Act as an oxidizing
agent (oxidant)

Find
oxidation
number

Direct

Free
element

Monoato
mic ion

Calculate

Molecule

Polyatom
ic ion

1. In a free element , as
an atom or a molecule
the oxidation number is
zero

2. For monoatomic
ion, the oxidation
number is equal to
the charge on the
ion

3. Fluorine and other


halogens have oxidation
number of -1 except
when combine with
oxygen

4. Hydrogen is +1
except in metal
hydrides (-1)

5. Oxygen is -2 except in
peroxide (-1) and when
combine with fluorine
(+2)

6. In neutral molecule, the


sum of the oxidation
number of all atoms that
made up the molecule is
equal to zero

Oxidation
number must be
in whole number
or fraction but
not in decimal
form!
7. For polyatomic ions, the total
oxidation number of all atoms that
made up the polyatomic ion must be
equal to the net charge of the ion

Exercise
Find oxidation number for the
underlined
atoms
Na
HCl

Br2

Cl2O7

Al3+
S2NaF

HCl
NaH
MgH2

Exercise
Find oxidation number for the
underlined
atoms
MgO
HNO
3

H2O

NH4+

H2O2

MnO4-

OF2

Cr2O72-

KMnO4

NO3-

Exercise
Assign the oxidation number of Mn in the
following chemical compounds:
(i)MnO2 (ii)MnO4Assign the oxidation number of Cl in the
following chemical compounds:
(i)KClO3 (ii)Cl2O72Assign the oxidation number of following:
(i)Cr in K2Cr2O7 (ii)U in UO22+ (iii)C in C2O42-

BALANCE EQUATION
CHEMICAL EQUATION
INSPECTION METHOD
REDOX EQUATION
ION-ELECTRON METHOD

Chemical equation
A chemical equation shows a chemical
reaction using symbols for the reactants and
products.
The formulae of the reactants are written on
the left side of the equation while the products
are on the right side.
The total number of atoms of each element is
the same on both sides in a balanced
equation.

w
reacta
nt

produc
t

The number w, x, y and z, showing the


relative number of molecules reacting,
are called the stoichiometric
coefficients.
The methods to balance chemical
equation is called inspection method

Write down the unbalanced equation.


Write the correct formulae for the
reactants and products

Balance the metallic element, followed by


non-metallic atoms, except hydrogen and
oxygen

Balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms


Check to ensure that the total number of
atoms of each element is the same on
both sides of equation

Example
Balance

the chemical equation by


applying the
inspection method.

Exercise
Balance

the chemical equation below


by applying inspection method:

Redox equation
When we balance a chemical reaction
equation, the primary concern is to obey the
principle of conservation of mass - the total
mass of the reactants must be equal the
total mass of the products.
This is done by conserving and accounting
for atoms.

In redox reactions we must obey a second


principle as well, the conservation of charge.
The total number of electrons lost must equal
the total number of electrons gained.
Redox reactions involve the transfer of
electrons from one species to another, so
electrical charge must be considered when
balancing redox equations.
The key to balancing complicated redox
equations is to balance electron transfers.

Redox reaction may occur in acidic and basic


solution.
The methods to balance redox equation is
called ion-electron method.
The steps on the next slide show how to
balance redox reaction in acidic solution.

Divide the equation into reduction and oxidation


half equation
Balance each half reaction:
Balance element other than oxygen and hydrogen
Balance oxygen atom by adding H20 and hydrogen
by adding H+
Balance the charge by adding electron
Multiply each the half equation to equalized the
number of electron in each half equation

Add the half reactions; cancel same species that


appears on opposite sides but add together the
species that appears on the same side

Check the number of atom and charge

Example
Balance

the following reaction in acidic


solution:

Solution
1. Divide the equation into two half equation,
one involving oxidation and the other
reduction:
+2
+3

+7

+2

Increase in oxidation number marks the ion


as undergoes oxidation while decrease in
oxidation number means reduction

2. Balance each half-reaction:


a) balance the element other than
oxygen and hydrogen

Other elements
besides oxygen
and hydrogen are
balanced,
therefore no
changes made!

b) Balance the oxygen atom by


adding H2O

c) Balance the hydrogen atom by


adding H+

d) Balance the charge by adding electrons


to the side with greater overall positive
charge
+2

+7

+3

+2

3. Multiply each half-reaction by an integer,

so that number of electron lost in one


half-reaction equals the number gained in
the other

4.
Add the two half equation by cancelling
the same species that appears on
opposite sides but adding together the
species that appears on the same side

5. Check the equation to make sure that

there are the same number of atoms of


each kind and the same total charge on
both sides

Exercise 1

Balance
the following in acidic
solution:

Answer:

Exercise 2
Balance

the following in acidic


solution:

Answer:

Basic solution

1
2

Balance the equation as in acidic


solution

Add OH- to both sides of the


equation so that H+ can form H20

Example
Balance

the following redox reaction in


basic condition:

Solution
1. Divide the equation into two half equation,
one involving oxidation and the other
reduction:
+3
+4

+5

-1

Increase in oxidation number marks the ion


as undergoes oxidation while decrease in
oxidation number means reduction

2. Balance each half-reaction:


a) balance the element other than
oxygen and hydrogen

Other elements
besides oxygen
and hydrogen are
balanced,
therefore no
changes made!

b) Balance the oxygen atom by


adding H2O

c) Balance the hydrogen atom by


adding H+

d) Balance the charge by adding electrons


to the side with greater overall positive
charge
0

+5

+1

-1

3. Multiply each half-reaction by an integer,

so that number of electron lost in one


half-reaction equals the number gained in
the other

4.
Add the two half equation by cancelling
the same species that appears on
opposite sides but adding together the
species that appears on the same side

5. Add OH- to both sides of the equation


so that it can be combined with H+ to
form H2O.

12
H2O

6. Cancel the same species that


appears on opposite sides but
adding together the species that
appears on the same side

15
H2O

7. Check the equation to make sure that

there are the same number of atoms of


each kind and the same total charge on
both sides

Exercise 1
Balance

the following in basic solution:

Answer:

Exercise 2
the following redox equations:
Balance

a) In acidic solution

b) In basic solution

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.
Whether the units given for reactants (or
products) are moles, grams or liters, we use
moles to calculate the amount of reactant
used or product formed in a reaction.
This approach is called mole method, which
means the stoichiometric coefficients in a
chemical equation can be interpreted as the
number of moles of each substance.

For
example:
The stoichiometry tells us that:
1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2 to form
2 moles of NH3
For convenience, we can write as:
1 mol N2 3 mol H2 2 mol NH3
Stoichiometry can be used for calculating the
species we are interested in during a reaction

Example
How many moles of hydrochloric acid,
HCl do we need to react with 0.5 moles
of zinc?

Solution

From equation:
1 mol Zn 2 mol HCl
If we have 0.5 mol Zn:
0.5 mol Zn mol HCl
Therefore, the amount of HCl required
is 1 mol

Exercise 1
How many moles of H2O will be formed
when 0.25 moles of C2H5OH burns in
oxygen?

Answer: 0.75 mol

Exercise 2
A 16.50 mL 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution
is needed to oxidize 20.00mL of a
FeSO4 solution in an acidic medium.
What is the concentration of the FeSO4
solution? The net ionic equation is:

Exercise 3
How
many milliliters of 0.112 M HCl will react
exactly with the sodium carbonate in 21.2
mL of
0.150 M Na2CO3 according to the following
equation?

Answer:56.8mL

Exercise 4
10.64
g of metal oxide M2O3 are reacted with

excess hydrogen gas and produces 3.78 g of
water and metal M as shown by the equation:

Calculate the relative molecular mass of M 2O3,


relative atomic mass of metal M and the mass
of M produced in the above reaction.
Answer: 152, 52, 7.28 g

Limiting reactant
A limiting reactant is the reactant that
is completely consumed in a reaction
and limits the amount of products
formed.
An excess reactant is the reactant that
is not completely consumed in a
reaction and remains at the end of the
reaction.

There are two methods to find limiting


reactant.
1. The first method: compare the
reactant and product
2. The second method: compare the
reactant with reactant

For
the first method, consider the industrial
synthesis of methanol (CH3OH):

Suppose we have 4 moles of CO and 6 moles of H 2.


To determine which of the reactant is the limiting,
we have to calculate the number of moles CH 3OH
obtained based on the initial quantities of CO and
H 2.
From the preceding definition, we see that the
limiting reactant will yield smaller amount of
product.

Solution:

Compare product (CH3OH) with reactant CO:

From equation;
1 mol CO 1 mol CH3OH
If we have 4 moles of CO;
4 mol CO 4 mol CH3OH
The amount of product formed is 4 moles

Compare
product (CH3OH) with reactant

H 2:

From equation;
2 mol H2 1 mol CH3OH
If we have 6 moles of H2;
6 mol H2 3 mol CH3OH
The amount of product formed is 3 moles
H2 produce less product compared to CO.
Therefore, H2 is the limiting reactant

For
the second method, consider the same
reaction:

Suppose we have 4 moles of CO and 6 moles of H 2.


To determine which of the two reactants is the
limiting reactant, we have to compare both
reactants together.
Choose a reactant and find the number of mole
needed. If the number or mole available is greater
than the number of mole needed, the reactant is
limiting reactant.

Solution:

From the equation;
1 mol CO 2 H2
If we have 4 moles of CO;
4 mol of CO = 8 mol H2 (nneeded)
From question, given that navailable for H2 is 6
moles
navailable<nneeded
Therefore, H2 is the limiting reactant.

example for the second method:


Another

A chemist has used 4 moles of S reacts with 10


moles of F2. To determine which of the two
reactants is the limiting reactant, we have to
compare both reactants together.
Choose a reactant and find the number of mole
needed. If the number or mole available is
greater than the number of mole needed, the
reactant is limiting reactant.

Solution:

From the equation;
1 mol S 3 F2
If we have 4 moles of S;
4 mol of S = 12 mol F 2 (nneeded)
From question, given that navailable for F2 is 10
moles
navailable<nneeded
Therefore, F2 is the limiting reactant.

Exercise 1
Determine

the limiting reactant when


reacting 16.8g of Fe with 10.0g of H2O?

Ar Fe=55.8, H=1.0, O=16.0


Answer:Fe

Exercise 2
How
many moles of CO2 can be
collected if 0.020 moles of CaCO3 is
added to 100 cm3 of 0.50 mol nitric
acid?

Answer: 0.020 moles

Exercise 3
C
is prepared by reacting A and B:

In one process, 2 moles of A react with 9 moles


of B
i. Which is the limiting reactant?
ii. Calculate the number of mole(s) of C?
iii. How much of the excess reactant (in moles)
is left at the end of the reaction?
Answer: (ii)1.8mol (iii)0.2mol

Percentage yield
Theoretical yield is the maximum
obtainable yield, predicted by the
balanced equation.
The actual yield is the amount of product
actually obtained from a reaction and it is
almost always less than the theoretical
yield.

There are many reasons for the difference


between actual and theoretical yield . For
instance, many reactions are reversible, so,
not all reactants can be converted into
product.
Even if all reactants converted into product, it
may be difficult to recover all of the product
from the reaction medium.
Some reactions are complex in the sense that
the product formed may react further to form
another compound.

The
higher the amount of product formed,
the reaction is said to be more efficient.
Chemists use percentage yield to quote
efficiency of a reaction.
Percentage yield is the ratio of the actual
yield to the theoretical yield multiply by
100%

Example (method 1)
1.24
g of methyl salicylate, C8H8O3 or
oil of
wintergreen, is prepared by heating
1.50 g of
salicylic acid, C7H6O3 with 11.20 g of
methanol,
CH3OH

Solution

product (C8H8O3) with reactant


Compare

C7H6O3:

From equation;
1 mol C7H6O3 1 mol C8H8O3
If we have moles of C7H6O3;
mol C7H6O3 mol C8H8O3

Compare
product (C8H8O3) with reactant CH3OH:

From equation;
1 mol CH3OH 1 mol C8H8O3
If we have moles of CH 3OH;
mol CH3OH mol C8H8O3
C8H8O3 produce less product compared to
CH3OH.
Therefore, C8H8O3 is the limiting reactant

Exercise 1

In
a certain experiment, 14.6g of SbF3 was allowed to
react with CCl4 in excess. After the reaction was
finished, 8.62g of CCl2F2 was obtained. (Ar Sb = 122,
F = 19, C= 12, Cl = 35.5)

i.

What was the theoretical yield of CCl2F2 in grams


?

ii. What was the percentage yield of CCl2F2 ?


Answer: (i)14.8g (ii)58.24%

Exercise 2
(C2H4), an important industrial
Ethylene

organic chemical, can be prepared by heat


hexane (C6H14) at 800C:

If the yield of ethylene production is 42.5


percent, what mass of hexane must be
reacted to produce 481 g of ethylene?
Answer: 3480 g

Exercise 3
dichloride (S2Cl2) is prepared by
Disulfide

heating sulfur in an atmosphere of chlorine:

What is the theoretical yield of S 2Cl2 in


grams when 4.06 g of S8 are heated with
6.24 g of Cl2? If the actual yield of S2Cl2 is
6.55 g, what is the percentage yield?
Answer: 8.55 g, 76.6 %

Percentage of composition

Example
5.00

g of alloy containing Cu and Zn is


added to excess dilute H2SO4. If 1.281
dm3 H2 gas can be collected at room
temperature and pressure, determine
the percentage of Zn in the alloy.
Ar Zn= 65.4; 1 mole of gas occupied
24.0 dm3 at room temperature and
pressure

Solution

1 mol H2 1 mol Zn
0.05338 mol H2 0.05338 mol Zn

Exercise 1
What mass of lead could be obtained
from 90.00 grams of lead(II) oxide ore
which is only 28.55 % pure?

Answer: 25.70 g

Exercise 2
In an experiment, a sample of impure zinc
weighing 0.198 g is allowed to react with
an excess nitric acid, HNO 3 to produce zinc
nitrate solution and hydrogen gas. Assume
that only pure zinc is completely reacted
with nitric acid, calculate the percentage of
pure zinc in the impure sample if 5.46X10 -3
g of hydrogen gas is produced.
Answer: 89.9 %

Exercise 3
A sample of 1.55 g of iron ore is dissolved in an
acidic solution in which the iron is converted to Fe 2+.
The solution formed is then titrated with KMnO 4 to
oxidize Fe2+ to Fe3+ while MnO4- ions are reduced to
Mn2+. 92.95cm3 of 0.02 M KMnO4 is required for the
titration to reach the equivalence point.
a) Write the balanced equation for the reaction of
the titration
b) Calculate the percentage of iron in the sample
Answer: (b)33.4 %

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