Advanced Research Methods (ARM)

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Introduction to ARM:
Basic Concepts
Lecture - 1
 Over 90% of the relevant literature in many
technical fields, such as biotechnology,
astronomy, computers and software, and
environmental sciences, has been produced
since 1985.
Traditional programmatic approaches to
education simply cannot keep up………...
J B Quinn (2001)
 Pace of Knowledge Creation

 1700 To 1950: Man’s Knowledge Doubled = 250 Years

 1950 To 1965: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 15
Years
 1965 To 1975: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 10
Years
 1975 To 1980: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 5
Years
 Operational Knowledge

 Imagine, your boss is planning to visit Paris…

You have been assigned to prepare a Guide for
him…
 What will you do?
 Develop a research plan
You may consider questions like:

 Is it worth to research?
 What is purpose of your research?
 What would your research questions?
 From whom you will collect information?
 From how many persons, you will collect
information?
 How will you collect the information?
 How will you analyze information?
 How will you report the findings?
 What could be the kinds and sources of biases?
 How will you prove to then boss that the
information contained the Guide is relevant and
reliable?
Are you SURE that you are
not going to reinvent the
wheel?
 What is research?

 Research is one of the ways to find answers to

your questions
 Research is defined as human activity based on
intellectual application in the investigation of
matter.
 The primary purpose for applied research is
discovering, interpreting, and the development of
methods and systems for the advancement of
human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific
matters of our world and the universe.
 Research is defines as a systematic, self critical
enquiry.
 Enquiry is aimed at understanding a thing or
phenomenon or solving a problem
 Research is an art of scientific investigation.
 Why Study Research?

 Research provides you with the knowledge and

skills needed for the fast-paced decision-making
environment
 When Should Research be Undertaken?

Is sufficient time
available?

Yes

Is information
inadequate? NO Do not
undertake Business Research
Yes

High importance
of decision?

Yes

Research benefits
greater than costs? Undertake Business Research

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 What is Good Research?

 Following the standards of the scientific method

 Purpose clearly defined
 Research process detailed

 Research design thoroughly planned

 Limitations frankly revealed

 High ethical standards applied

 Consistent style of citation

 High ethical standards applied

 Adequate analysis for decision-maker’s
needs
 Findings presented unambiguously

 Conclusions justified

 Researcher’s experience reflected

 Bibliography
 Golden rules

 Use of Project Management tools and techniques

 Use MindManager software to develop and
refine your model for research
 Knowledge Management
 Remain open to all possible sources
 Be creative / innovative
 Modules in a Business Research
Proposal
 Executive Summary • Qualifications of
 Problem Statement Researcher
 Research Objectives • Budget
 Literature Review
• Schedule
 Importance of the Study
• Facilities and Special
 Research Design
 Data Analysis
Resources
 Nature and Form of Results • Project Management
• Bibliography
• Appendices
 What is Research Design?

 A plan for selecting the sources and types of

information used to answer research questions
 A framework for specifying the relationships
among the study variables
 A blueprint that outlines each procedure from
the hypothesis to the analysis
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Taxonomy
of Research
 Types of Research

 Classification # 1
 Descriptive Research
 Explanatory research
 Predictive research
 Classification # 2
 Basic
 Applied
 Classification # 3
 Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Descriptive Research
C#1

 Descriptive research describes a single event or

characteristic or relates a few events or variables
through statistical analysis
 It is necessary for good explanatory research
 Explanatory Research
C#1

 Explanatory research answers why and how of

the phenomenon through hypotheses and
theories
 Uses theory
 Much of the research published in journals is
explanatory
 Predictive Research
C#1

 Predictive research constructs and uses models

to forecast the occurrence of an event or events
C#2
Basic Research
 Basic Research aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by
verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory or attempting
to discover more about a certain concept (non-specificity)

 Mostly performed by academics

Example: How does motivation affect employee performance?

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 Applied Research
C#2

Applied Research focuses on a real-life problem or situation with a view

to helping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity)
 Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern
world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One
might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human
condition .
Example: Should a corporation adopt a paperless office environment?
C#3 Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches
Quantitative Qualitative
Objective Subjective
Research questions: How many? Research questions: What? Why? How
When? Where? Strength of association?

"Hard" science "Soft" science

Literature review must be done early in Literature review may be done as study
study progresses or afterwards
Test theory Develops theory
One reality: focus is concise and narrow Multiple realities: focus is complex and
broad
Facts are value-free and unbiased Facts are value-laden and biased
Reduction, control, precision Discovery, description, understanding,
shared interpretation
Measurable Interpretive
Mechanistic: parts equal the whole
Report statistical analysis.
Basic element of analysis is numbers
Researcher is separate
Subjects
Context free
Hypothesis
Reasoning is deductive
Establishes relationships, causation
Uses instruments
Strives for generalization
Generalizations leading to prediction,
explanation, and understanding
Highly controlled setting: experimental
setting (outcome oriented)
Sample size: n
"Counts the beans"
Uses different instruments
Organismic: whole is greater than the parts
Report rich narrative, individual; interpretation.
Basic element of analysis is words/ideas.
Researcher is part of process
Participants
Context dependent
Research questions
Reasoning is inductive
Describes meaning, discovery
Uses communications and observation
Strives for uniqueness
Patterns and theories developed for
understanding
Flexible approach: natural setting (process
oriented)
Sample size not a concern; seeks “informal rich”
sample; carefully selected participants
Provides information as to "which beans are
worth counting"
Researcher is the instrument
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Objectives of Research
 Objectives of Research

 The OBJECTIVES of a research project

summarize what is to be achieved by the study
 Objectives should be closely related to the
statement of the problem. For example, if the
problem identified is low morale of employees,
the general objective of the study could be to
identify the reasons for this low morale, in order
to find solutions.
 Specific objectives should systematically address
the various aspects of the problem as defined
under ‘Statement of the Problem’
 They should specify what you will do in your
study, where and for what purpose.
 The first specific objective usually focuses on
quantifying or specifying the problem.
 Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing
your objectives …e.g. to find out, to ascertain, to
measure, to explore,…
 Wording of objectives determine types of
research design
 There is no place for ambiguity, non-specificity
or incompleteness
 Why should research objectives
be developed?

 Focus the study (narrowing it down to

essentials);
 Avoid the collection of data which are not
strictly necessary for understanding and solving
the problem you have identified; and
 Organise the study in clearly defined parts or
phases.

Rule 100% of Scope

 Descriptive Research
Examples Aims
Socioeconomic characteristics of a To describe what is prevalent regarding:
community
 a group of people
Attitudes of customers towards quality
 a community
of products
 a phenomenon
Attitudes of workers towards  a situation
management  a program
 an outcome
Problems faced by expatriates
Extent of occupational mobility among
business graduates
Consumers’ likes and dislikes with
regard to a product
Effects of living in a house with
domestic violence
Strategies put in place by a company to
increase productivity of workers
 Correlational Research
Examples Aims
Impact of a program To establish or explore or ascertain:
Relationship stressful working
 a relationship
environment and performance of
 an association
employees
A interdeondence
Impact of technology on employment
Impact of pre-entry training on extent of
work related problems
Impact of an advertising campaign on
sale of a product
Impact of incentives on productivity of
employees
Effectiveness of a career counseling
program on retention of employees
 Explanatory Research
Examples Aims
Why does stressful work environment To explain:
result in high turnover of employees?
 why a relationship, association or
How does technology create
interdependence exists
employment / unemployment?
 why a particular event occurs
Why do some people have a positive
attitude towards an issue while others
do not?
Why does a particular intervention work
for some people and not for others?

Why do some people prefer intangible

benefits over tangible benefits while
others do not
Why do some people adopt a program
while others do not
 Scientific Knowledge
 Scientific knowledge is the knowledge gained systematically through a cycle
of processes:
 Observations
 Perceptions
 Language
 Thoughts
 Concepts
 Classification
 Definition
 Constructs
 Principles
 Hypotheses
 Laws
 Theory
 Verification
 Validity

 It ensures that in a research study correct

procedures have been applied to find answers to
a question
 Reliability

 Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement

procedure that provides repeatability and
accuracy
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Errors using inadequate data are much

less than those using no data at all. –
Charles Babbage (1792-1871)
Validity and Precision
Validity and Precision
Validity and Precision
Validity and Precision
What is wrong with this statement?

A study conducted by Akram (2006)

shows that GDP growth rate of
Pakistan for the year 2006-07 is
expected to fall between -8 % to +8%
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Data, Information and Knowledge

 Data
 Data... data is raw. symbols
 Data are pieces of information that represent the qualitative
or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables.
 It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence
(in and of itself).
 It can exist in any form, usable or not.
 It does not have meaning of itself.
 Data is unprocessed facts and figures without any added
interpretation or analysis. "The price of crude oil is $80 per
barrel."
 Information

 Information is data that has been given meaning

by way of relational connection.
 This "meaning" can be useful, but does not have
to be.
 Generally speaking, the concept of information is
closely related to notions of constraint,
communication, control, data, form, instruction,
knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern,
perception, and representation.
 Information is data that has been interpreted
so that it has meaning for the user.
 data that are processed to be useful; provides
answers to "who", "what", "where", and "when"
questions
 "The price of crude oil has risen from $70 to $80
per barrel" gives meaning to the data and so is
said to be information to someone who tracks oil
prices.
 Knowledge

 Knowledge is a combination of information, experience

and insight that may benefit the individual or the
organisation.
 "When crude oil prices go up by $10 per barrel, it's
likely that petrol prices will rise by 2p per litre" is
knowledge.
 application of data and information; answers "how"
questions
 Knowledge is the appropriate collection of information,
such that it's intent is to be useful.
 Quiz

 The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started

raining
 It is raining.
 If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops
substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to be able
to hold the moisture so it rains.
 Data represents a fact or statement of event
without relation to other things.
 Ex: It is raining.
 Information embodies the understanding of a
relationship of some sort, possibly cause and
effect.
 Ex: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it
started raining.
 Knowledge represents a pattern that connects
and generally provides a high level of
predictability as to what is described or what will
happen next.
 Ex: If the humidity is very high and the temperature
drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely
to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.
 Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of
fundamental principles embodied within the knowledge
that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being what
it is.
 Wisdom is essentially systemic.
 Ex: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an
understanding of all the interactions that happen between
raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients,
changes, and raining.
 Yet, there is still a question regarding when is a
pattern knowledge and when is it noise.
 Consider the following:
 Abugt dbesbt regtc uatn s uitrzt.
 ubtxte pstye ysote anet sser extess
 ibxtedstes bet3 ibtes otesb tapbesct ehracts
 It is quite likely this sequence represents 100%
novelty, which means it's equivalent to noise.
 There is no foundation for you to connect with the
pattern, yet to me the statements are quite
meaningful as I understand the translation with
reveals they are in fact Newton's 3 laws of motion.
 Is something knowledge if you can't understand
it?
 Chaim Zins has authored an article “Conceptual
Approaches for Defining Data, Information, and
Knowledge” available on Website
(http://www.success.co.il/is/zins_definitions_di
k.pdf) contains 130 definitions of data,
information, and knowledge formulated by
45 scholars, and maps the major conceptual
approaches for defining these three key
concepts.
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Concept, Construct,
Hypothesis and Theory
 The Building Blocks of Theory

 Concepts
 Constructs
 Definitions
 Variables
 Propositions and Hypotheses
 Theories
 Models
 Concepts

 A concept is a basic building block of thought

and communication which helps in organizing
an observation or an experiential knowledge
 A mental image that summarizes a set of similar
observations, feelings, or ideas.
 All theories, ideas, are based on concepts
 A concept is a bundle of meanings or
characteristics associated with certain events,
objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors
 Concepts have been developed over time
through shared usage
 E.g. flexibility, originality,…
 The success of research hinges on:
 how clearly we conceptualize

 how well others understand the

concepts we use
 Definition

 A definition is a statement whose truth is

asserted but not considered liable to empirical
challenge
 A definition can be descriptive or operational or
mathematical
 Empirical

 Empirical denotes information gained by means

of observation, experience, or experiment.
 Operational Definition

 An operational definition is stated in terms of

criteria for measurement so that it is
unambiguous and precise, which is mostly used
one in research
 Proposition

A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship

between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical
linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of
abstraction than concepts

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

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 What is a Construct?

A construct is an image or idea specifically

invented for a given research and/or theory-
building purpose.
 Higher-level concepts are called
constructs.
 Constructs express the ideas behind a set of
particulars.
 Example: Creativity is a construct generally
recognized to consist of flexibility, originality,
elaboration, and other concepts.
 Since constructs are not directly observable,
researchers use indicators or variables as a way
of measuring or classifying most of the
particulars of the construct.
 Variable

 A phenomenon which is subject to change

 Theory

 A theory is a well-established principle that has

been developed to explain some aspect of the
natural word.
 A theory is a set of asserted universal proposition
communicated in a set of universal sentences (by
universal researchers) which are derived by
observation and empirical evidence capable of
agreement and corroboration (validation)
 E.g. Maslows Theory
 The Value of a Theory

 Narrows the range of facts we need to study

 Suggests which research approaches will yield
the greatest meaning
 Suggests a data classification system
 Summarizes what is known about an object of
study
 Predicts further facts that should be found
"It is the theory that decides
what can be observed."
 Albert Einstein
 Qualities of a Good Theory

“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two

requirements.
 It must accurately describe a large class of
observations.
 And it must make definite predictions about the result
of future observations”

Source: Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of

Time, 1988

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Theories must be:
 Objective

 Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)

 Falsifiable / disprovable

Good theories must understand, explain and predict

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 Hypothesis

 A tentative theory that has not yet been tested.

 Hypotheses are propositions which are
empirically testable. They are usually concerned
with the relationships between variables
 Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the
production
 If basic needs are not met, then motivation level among
the employees will be low
 The Role of the Hypothesis

 Guides the direction of the study

 Identifies facts that are relevant
 Suggests which form of research design is
appropriate
 Provides a framework for organizing the
conclusions that result
 What is a Good Hypothesis?

 A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:

 Must be adequate for its purpose
 Must be testable
 Must be better than its rivals
 The Abstraction Ladder
Theory Abstract Level

Propositions
Levels of
Abstraction

Concepts / Constructs

Observations of Objects,
Events and Occurrences (Reality) Empirical Level

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 Conceptual framework
 A conceptual framework is used in research to
outline possible courses of action or to present a
preferred approach to an idea or thought.
 Conceptual frameworks act like maps that give
coherence to empirical inquiry.
 Conceptual frameworks (theoretical frameworks) are a
type of intermediate theory that have the potential to
connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem
definition, purpose, literature review, methodology,
data collection and analysis).
 Model
 A model is a pattern, plan, representation or description
designed to show the main object or workings of an object,
system, or concept.
 A statistical model is a set of mathematical equations which
describe the behavior of an object of study in terms of
variables and their associated probability distributions.
 If the model has only one equation it is called a single-
equation model, whereas if it has more than one equation, it
is known as a multiple-equation model.
 Deduction / Induction

 Inference:
 from a general principle or law to individual instances
(deduction):
 (General) If something is red, it is a Tomato.

 Your car is red

 (Particular) Your car is also a Tomato

 from several instances to a law (induction)

 (Specific) My apple is red

 Your apple is red

 (General) All apples are red

 Deductive Reasoning
Theory

Using deductive reasoning, one

starts with a given theory as the
Hypotheses basis for which we develop
hypotheses and then confirm
these with specific
data acquired using observation
or experimentation
Observation
(Is our theory valid or not?)

Confirmation

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 Inductive Reasoning
Observation

Using inductive reasoning, one

starts with a specific observation
Pattern
as the basis for which we develop
a general pattern and tentative
hypothesis as the foundation
of a theory
Tentative Hypothesis

Theory

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 Conclusion

 When people say they do they are omitting to

mention essential background theory or
assumptions they are making.
"All research ultimately has a qualitative
grounding"

- Donald Campbell
"There's no such thing as qualitative data.
Everything is either 1 or 0"

- Fred Kerlinger
 Just Imagine

 A sudden crash brings us running to the kitchen.

The accused is crouched in front of us, eyes wide
and fearful. Her hands are red and sticky. A knife
lies on the floor. So does a jam jar and its spilled
contents. The accused was about to lick her tiny
fingers
 Conclusion

 When people say they do they are omitting to

mention essential background theory or
assumptions they are making.
 Research Process

 Formulating a research problem

 Conceptualizing a research design
 Constructing an instrument for data collection
 Selecting a sample
 Writing a research proposal
 Collecting data
 Processing data
 Writing a research report
2J
 Tips for Novice Scholars
 Non-refereed contributions
 Conference Proceedings
 Match quality of contribution and rating of the journal
 Be prepared to revise and revise and revise and revise…
 Be prepared to resubmit
 Second author
 Use master’s thesis or dissertation
 Don’t get discouraged!
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Course Outline
 Course Outline

 Lecture 1: Introduction and overview of the

course and its requirements.
 Part I: Theoretical Framework
 Lecture 2: Scientific Method and Overview of
Research in Management
 Lecture 3: Reviewing Literature and formulating a
research problem
 Lecture 4: Identification of variables and
constructing hypotheses
 Lecture 5: Workshop on Theoretical Framework
 Part II: Research Design
 Lecture 6: Research design and sample design
 Lecture 7: Questionnaire Design
 Lecture 8: Workshop on Research Design
 Part III – Data Analysis
 Lecture 9: Hypothesis Testing: Uni- and Bi- variate
Analysis
 Lecture 10: Hypothesis Testing: Multivariate Analysis
 Lecture 11: Workshop on Data Analysis
 Part IV – Report Writing
 Lecture 12: Writing your document
 Lecture 13: Common Mistakes in Grammar and
Punctuation
 Lecture 14: Referencing Style
 Lecture 15: Workshop on Report Writing
 Texts

 Velde, M. V. D., Jansen, P. & Anderson, P.

(2008). Management Research Methods. New
Delhi: Blackwell Publishing Limited.
 Krishnaswamy, K. N. (2006). Management
Research Methodology: Principles, Methods and
Techniques. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
 Fink, A. (1998). Conducting Research Literature
Reviews. London: Sage Publications.
 Brace, I. (2005). Questionnaire Design. London:
Kogan Page.
 Manser, M. H. (2007). Guide to Good Writing. New
Delhi: Vinod Vasishtha.
 Bailey, S. (2006). Academic Writing: A Handbook
for International Students. London: Routledge.
 O’Shea, R. P. (2002). Writing for psychology (4th
ed). Victoria: Thomson.
 Dees, R. (1997). Writing the Modern research
Paper. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
 Journals

 European Journal of Research Methods

 Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary
Research
 Journal of Research Methods and Methodological Issues
 Journal of Unconventional Theories and Research
 Journal of Research Abstracts
 International Journal of Social Research Methodology
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Thank you for your

kind attention
Go forth and research….
….but be careful out there.