BUILDING SCIENCE II

ACOUSTICS AND
ILLUMINATION
VII SEMESTER B.ARCH
RINA SURANA
AUGUST 2011

ACOUSTICS
INTRODUCTION
BASIC THEORY
SOUND ABSORPTION
ROOM ACOUSTICS
SOUND ISOLATION AND NOISE CONTROL
MECHANICAL SYSTEMNOISE AND
VIBRATIONS
SPEECH PRIVACY
ELECTRONIC SOUND SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

All acoustic situations can be described by three parts:

SOURCE: Speech, HVAC equipment -made louder or quieter

through sound absorbing/ reflecting material placement

PATH:
sound

Air, earth, building materials made to transmit more or less

through double wall constructions etc.

to interrupt sound path for isolation

RECIEVER: Human/ animal ears, medical equipment- internal mechanical

equipment, outdoor noises

hear better and be more comfortable if distracting noise is

controlled

Best to focus on all three parts

Acoustical requirements to be considered at earliest stages of building

design as later corrections may be difficult and extremely expensive

ROOM ACOUSTICS
Volume
Shape and proportion
Layout: floor slope, distances
from source
Finishes: selection and
placement
Furnishings
Special treatments

MECHANICAL SYSTEM
NOISE AND VIBRATIONS
Equipment characteristics
Location of mech. equip.
Vibration isolation-springs,
pads etc.
Air duct and pipe treatmentlinings etc.
Background noise from air
outlets (coordination with
sound isolation)

ESSENTIAL
ELEMENTS
OF
ARCHITECT
URAL
ACOUSTICS

ELECTRONIC SOUND
SYSTEMS
System compatibility with
room acoustics
Loudspeaker selection,
placement and orientation
System components and
controls
Background masking
(loudspeaker layout, sound
spectra

SOUND ISOLATION
Site noise characteristics
Outdoor barriers: buildings
vegetation earth-berms
Location of activities within
buildings
Wall, floor and ceiling
construction
Background noise criteria
(Coordination with room
acoustics)

ASSIGNMENT 1:2nd AUGUST. SUBMISSION 9th AUGUST

To explore market and collect information on acoustic

materials.

Find types of materials available.

The acoustic properties that are given of those materials (if

any).

The other physical and architectural properties such as

aesthetics, durability, weathering etc.

Where they can be used

Fixing details.

Prices.

BASIC THEORY

Sound and noise is a vibration in an elastic medium such as air, water, earth, building
material.
Elastic medium returns to normal state after force is removed

Amplitude, Cycle, Frequency, Time Period and wavelength.

Sound energy travels but each vibrating particle of the medium moves an
infinitesimal amount and bumps against adjacent particles. It imparts most of its motion
and energy to them.

The maximum displacement of the particle during vibration is called Amplitude.

A full circuit by a displaced particle is called a Cycle.

The time required for one complete cycle is called the Time Period and is measured
in seconds per cycle.

The number of complete cycles per second is called the Frequency of vibration and
is measured in cycles per second whose unit is Hertz (Hz).

The distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration is called the
Wavelength.

The movement causes adjacent particles to push together or draw apart Compression and Rarefaction.

Pitch is the subjective response of human hearing to frequency low frequencies are
considered boomy and high frequencies are screechy or hissy.

FREQUENCY, TONE AND BAND WIDTH

Pure Tone is vibration produced at a single frequency.

A graph between sound pressure and time gives a sinusoidal curve

A tone is composed of a fundamental frequency with multiples of the fundamental

called Harmonics.

Complex sounds consist of a variety of pressures which vary over time, most
everyday sounds are complex.

Most sound sources, except for pure tones, contain energy over a wide range of
frequencies.

Hearing range for healthy young person is from 20 to 20,000 Hz.

For measurement, analysis and specification of sound, the frequency range is divided
into sections (called bands).

One common standard division is into 10 octave bands identified by their center
frequencies : 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, 16,000.

An octave band in sound analysis, represents a frequency ratio of 2:1

Wave length scales

44m 22m
11m
2.1cm
1cm
144

72
7/16

36

5.5m

2.8m

18

1.4m
4.5

0.7m

34cm

17cm

8.6cm

4.3cm

2.25

11/2 6-3/4 3-3/8

1-3/4

500

1000

HEARING RANGE FOR YOUNG

HEARING RANGE FOR OLD
VOWELS CONSONANTS SPEECH
HIGH FIDELITY STEREO
8
16 20 31.5
16000
32000

63

125

Frequency (Hz) 20000

Vibrations below 20Hz are not audible but
can be felt.
Human speech ranges between 125 to 8000
Hz.

250

2000

4000

8000

7/8

Inverse square law for sound:

Sound waves from a point source outdoors with no obstructions (free field
conditions) are virtually spherical and expand outwards from the source.

Power is a basic quantity of energy flow measured in watts.

Acoustic and electrical forms of energy are different and cause different responses. 10 watts of
electric energy in an incandescent bulb is very dim light, whereas 10 W of acoustic energy can
produce an extremely loud sound.

The intensity from a point source outdoors at a distance d away is the

sound power of the source divided by the total spherical area 4 d2 of the
sound wave at the distance of interest :

I=W/4d2

Where

I = sound intensity (W/m2 )

W = sound power (W)

d = distance from sound source (m)
The Inverse square law for sound is:

I1 /I2 = (d2 /d1 )2

Where

I = sound intensity (W/m2 )

d = distance from sound source (m)

Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner discovered that:

NEARLY ALL HUMAN SENSATIONS ARE PROPORTIONAL TO THE LOGARITHM OF

THE INTENSITY OF THE STIMULUS

The unit bel was first used to relate the intensity of sound to an intensity level corresponding
to the human hearing sensation.

Sound intensity level in bels equals the logarithm of the intensity ratio I/I o where
Io is the minimum sound intensity audible to the average human ear at 1000 Hz.

Decibels (logarithm to be multiplied by 10) =

L1 = 10 log I/I0

where L1 = sound intensity level (dB)

I= sound intensity (W/m2)

I0 = reference sound intensity = 10 -12

Human hearing ranges from the threshold of audibility at 0 dB to the threshold of

pain at 130 dB. Represents a tremendous intensity ratio of 10 trillion to 1. A weighing
machine of comparable range would have to be able weigh a human hair and a 30 storey
building! Logarithms allow this range to be represented in convenient small numbers.

Outdoors, away from obstruction according to inverse square law the intensity ratio for
doubling the distance is 22 or 4 and corresponding decibel reduction is 10 log 4 or 6
dB.

Sound from line sources like vehicles on highway drop by only 3 dB on doubling of distances
as the line is a succession of point sources that reinforce each other

Decibels
Examples
140 Jet engine 25 m
away
130 Jet aircraft during takeoff 100m
away
120 Hard rock band elect.
amplification
110 Accelerating motorcycle few feet
away
100 Auto horn
Crowd noise at football game
90 Printing press
Pneumatic concrete breaker
80 Cafeteria with sound reflecting
surfaces.
70
Aircraft cabin during flight
60

Near highway traffic

50

Office activities

40

Soft stereo music in residence

30

Residence late at night

20 Whisper
12 Rustle of leaves
8
Human breathing
0
Threshold of hearing/
audibility

Subjective
evaluation
140
Threshold of
pain
Threshold of
feeling

Threshold of hearing
loss (long term
exposure)
SPEECH

13
0
12
0
11
0
10
0

Painful,
dangerous
Deafening

Very loud

90
80
70

Loud

60
Moderate
50
40
30
20
10

Threshold of hearing
/audibility

Faint

Very faint

25

20
Point source (spherical, reduction
at 6dB per doubling of distance)
15

Noise reduction
(dB)

Line source (cylindrical,

reduction at 3dB per doubling of
distance)

10

0
10

30

60

120

Distance from
source (ft)

An area source, produced by several adjacent sources like rows of cheering

spectators at a sports event or
large areas of mechanical equipment has very
little reduction of sound energy with distance close to the source.

CHANGE IN SOUND LEVEL

Sound intensity is not perceived directly by the ear; rather it is transferred by a complex hearing
mechanism to the brain where acoustical sensations are interpreted as loudness.

Sensitivity to noise also depends on frequency content, psychological factors (emotions, expectations
etc.) and duration of sound.

Properties of logs: log xy =log x + log y,

log 1 =0

log x/y =log x log y,

log x n =n log x,

A reasonable guide to explain increase/ decrease in sound levels is:

Change in
Sound
Level (dB)

Change in
Apparent
Loudness
by:

Imperceptible

Just barely
perceptibleconditions

Clearly
noticeable

10

About twice(W/m
(or 2)
half) as loud

20

About four times

law)
(or one-fourth)
as loud

Change in intensity level (or noise reduction NR) is found

NR =L1-L2

NR = Diff. in sound levels of 2

NR = 10 logI1/I2

in Decibels (dB)
I1, I2 = Sound intensities under the two
conditions respectively

NR = 10 log (d2/d1)2

NR = 20 log (d2/d1)

by substitution (inverse square

where ds are distances.

DECIBEL ADDITION

When two (or more sources) create sound the combined sound is not an
algebraic addition as decibels are logarithmic values . If there are more sources,
then, combine two at a time. The following table can be used to rapidly combine
sound levels.
When
Two dB
values
Differ
by

Add
foll. to
higher
value.

0 or 1

2 or 3

4 to 8

9 or
more

Find combined sound level of 34,41,43,58 dB

34 + 41 = 42 and 43 +58 =58 ,
42 +58 = 58 dB
(Using different orders may give a difference of
about 1 dB which is not significant.)
If n number of equal decibel values are to be combined,
add 10 log n to the decibel value of one.
For example if n =76 trumpets each playing at an L 1 of 80
dB, then the total sound is:
= 80 +10 log 76
= 80 +10 (1.8808)
= 99 dB for 76 trumpets

Symbol
Express as
Units

Sound Intensity
Level

Sound Pressure
Level

Sound Power
Level

LI

LP

LW

10 log I/ IO

20 log p/po

10 Log W/WO

LI measured in
dB

LP measured in
dB

LW measured in
dB

I measured in
W/m2

p measured in
N/m2
(or pascal, Pa)

W measured in
Watt

Reference value*

Io = 10 -12 W/m2

po = 2x10-5 N/m2

Wo = 10-12 W
(1pW)

At reference value

LI = 0 dB

LP = 0 dB

LW = 0 dB

Pain threshold
value

I = 10 W/m2

P = 63 N/m2

At pain threshold
value

LI = 130 dB

LP = 130 dB

SOUND ABSORPTION

When sound hits the boundaries and other surfaces of a room, part of its
energy is absorbed and transmitted, and part is reflected back into the
room. Sound levels in a room can be reduced by effective use of sound
absorbing treatment, such as false ceilings, curtains and carpets etc.

Free Field conditions occur when sound waves are free from the influence of
reflective/ absorptive surfaces.

Reverberant Field: Indoors, sound energy drops off under free field conditions only
near the source (usually < than 5 ft for small rooms). Room surfaces reflect sound so
there will be little further noise reduction with distance away from the source (called
reverberant field)

EFFECT OF SOUND ABSORBING TREATMENT

Close to the source the reduction will be only 3 dB.

The addition of sound absorption to the ceiling of a small room (<500 ft 2 ) can reduce
the reverberant sound levels by10 dB.

If the ceiling and all four walls are treated then the sound level in the reverberant field
drops an additional 6 dB, but sound levels near the source (free field) are not affected.

No more reduction is achieved by adding further sound absorbing treatment.

The room was initially completely enclosed

by sound reflecting surfaces and had few

Sound level (dB)

furnishings to absorb sound energy.

Generally a reduction of 6 to 8 dB in rev. noise

is more likely the upper limit for furnished spaces
of comparable size

SOUND ABSORBTION COEFFICIENT

SOUND ABSORBTION COEFFICIENT is an expression of the effectiveness of a sound

absorbing material. It is the fraction of the incident sound energy that a material absorbs.
Varies from >0 (=no absorption) to <1 (perfect, or all incident sound energy absorbed)
and is denoted as .

TOTAL ROOM ABSORPTION is the sum of all surface areas in a room multiplied by their
respective sound absorption coefficients with a unit of Sabins in FPS

a=S

where

a = total room absorption (sabins)

S = surface area (ft2 )

= sound abs. coeff. at given frequency as a decimal percent

Materials with SAC > 0.5 are referred as sound absorbing and

Materials with SAC <0.2 are referred as sound reflecting.

Basic types of sound absorbing materials are porous materials, vibrating or resonant
panels, and volume resonators.

Sound absorption by Porous and fibrous materials is predominantly the indirect

conversion of sound energy to thermal energy mainly by frictional flow resistance.

The amount of sound absorption that can be achieved depends upon physical properties of
thickness, density, and porosity for most porous materials and fiber diameter
and orientation for fibrous materials

EFFICIENCY OF SOUND ABSORBERS

EFFECT OF THICKNESS ON ABSORPTION EFFICIENCY

Thickness has a considerable effect on sound absorption efficiency of porous

materials but the pores must be inter-connected.

These specialized types of sound absorption techniques can be used to

supplement porous
materials or to absorb specific low frequency sound
energy like a 120 Hz hum from electrical equipment

Volume Resonators reduce sound

energy by friction at openings and by
inter-reflections within the cavities
Vibrating Panels convert sound energy
into vibrational energy which is dissipated
by internal damping and radiation

NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT

The Noise Reduction Coefficient NRC is the arithmetic average , rounded off
to the nearest multiple of 0.05, of the Sound Absorption Coefficients s at 250,
500, 1000, and 2000 Hz for a specific material and mounting condition.

NRC is a single-number rating of sound-absorbing efficiency at midfrequencies.

NRC is not: as the name suggests, the difference in sound levels between two
conditions or between two rooms

NRC = (250 + 500 + 1000 + 2000 )/4

(decimal percent)

Where: NRC = noise reduction coefficient

= sound absorption coefficient ( decimal percent)

Note : Two materials may have identical NRC
but very different absorption characteristics.
As NRC does not include s at 125 and 4000
Hz it should not be used to evaluate
materials where
speech or music
perception is important

APPLICATIONS FOR SOUND ABSORBING MATERIALS

REVERBERATION CONTROL: So that speech is clear and not garbled. The larger the room
volume, the longer the RT because sound waves will encounter room surfaces less often than in
small rooms. Each doubling of the total amount of absorption in a room reduces the RT by one
half. Sound absorption can make sound appear to come directly from the actual source rather
than from everywhere.

NOISE REDUCTION IN ROOMS: When correctly used, they can be effective in controlling noise
build-up in a room. However they have limited application for noise control and are not allpurpose solution for all noise problems. Each doubling of the total amount of absorption in a
room reduces the noise level only by 3 dB. Thus it becomes an increasingly inefficient method for
noise reduction.
In large open-plan rooms, sound absorbing materials can contribute to speech privacy by causing
sound energy to decrease with distance.

ECHO CONTROL: Sound Absorbing Materials can be used to control Echo usually (along with
reverberation control). Echoes are long delayed, distinct reflections of sufficient sound level to be
clearly heard above the general reverberation as a repetition of the original sound. Flutter
Echo, which can be heard as a rattle or clicking from a hand clap, may be present in small
rooms (or narrow spaces with parallel walls) can also be controlled with SAM.

REVERBERATION TIME

Wallace Clement Sabine (beginning 1895 at 27) criteria for good listening conditions in rooms were largely
non existing.

Asked to improve listening conditions for speech in the new lecture hall (Fogg Art Museum, Harvard Univ.)

Sound in the hall would persist for about 5 s due to multiple reflections from the hard surfaces of the hall.

Most English speaking persons complete 15 syllables in this time, words were impossible to understand
everywhere in this hall.

Sabine recognized that the problem of persistence of sound energy in the room was due to the
size of the room, its furnishings and the occupants.

Size of the room affects av. length of reflections, called the Mean Free Path approx. equal to 4V/S where
V =Volume and S = surface area, (square and cubic feet).

Called this persistence duration of audibility of residual sound.

Repeated tests conducted in the hall with organ pipes as source had an initial sound level of 60dB above a
young listeners threshold of audibility at 512 Hz.

He tried to find out how much time it took for the 60 decibels sound to decay 1 / 1,000,000 of the initial
sound level. Conducted tests late at night.

Defined as REVERBERATION TIME.

Cushions used (3 thick, porous sound absorbing material covered with canvas and damask). More
cushions- more sound absorption and lower RT. When he used 550 cushions (1m long) the RT became 1 sec.

First unit of sound absorption was 1m length of this cushion.

The result of Sabines work made it possible to plan RT in advance of construction. For the first time ,
desired RT in rooms at 512 Hz could be the result of design and not luck or copying.

REVERBERATION TIME

The equation which Sabine defined and proved empirically is :

T = 0.05 V/a

Where

T = reverberation time, or time required for sound to decay

by 60 dB after source has stopped.
V = room volume (ft3)
a = total room absorption in sabins.
This is the sabine formula and is appropriate to use in most architectural work.
It is reasonably accurate when sound field conditions are diffuse (uniformly
distributed absorption) and room dimensions do not vary widely; without one
extremely long dimension, deep pockets, or transepts in churches etc.

Different activities and conditions have different preferred RTs.

A classroom having a height of 15 ft is 60 ft long and 35 ft wide. Sound Absorption

Coefficients s is 0.30 for the walls, 0.04 for ceiling, and 0.10 for floor at 500Hz .

Find RT at 500 Hz for this space with no occupants and no sound absorbing
treatment.

Find RT if 50% of the ceiling is treated with acoustical panels with of 0.85.

ROOM NOISE REDUCTION

The buildup of sound levels in a room is due to repeated reflections of sound from its
enclosing surfaces. This buildup is affected by the size of the room and the amount
of the absorption within the room.
The difference in decibels in reverberant noise levels or noise reduction , under
two conditions of room absorption can be found as follows:
NR = 10 log a2/a1

Where

NR = room noise reduction (dB)

a2 = total room absorption after treatment (sabins)
a1 = total room absorption before treatment (sabins)

Since absorption efficiencies vary with frequency, the NR should be calculated at all
frequencies for which sound absorption coefficients are known.

The NR is the reduction in reverberant noise level. This does not affect the noise
level very near the source of sound in a room.

A reduction in the reverberant noise level of 10dB (an increase in absorption

greater than 10 times the initial value before treatment) is the practical upper limit
for most remedial situations.

OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME

PROBLEM

A small room 10 ft x 10 ft x 10 ft has all walls and floors finished in exposed

concrete. How much is the noise reduction in the room if the ceiling is completely
covered with sound absorbing material.
Sound Absorption Coefficients s are 0.02 for concrete and 0.70 for the false ceiling,
both at 500Hz.
Find the NR in the room if sound absorbing panels are added to two adjacent walls .
The sound absorption coefficient is 0.85 for the panels at 500 Hz.
Find the NR if all four walls are treated and the floor is carpeted. The sound
absorption coefficient for the carpet at 500Hz is 0.50.

ROOM ACOUSTICS

BACKGROUND

DIRECTIVITY CONTOURS FOR SPEECH

AUDITORIUM PLAN WITH

SPEECH CONTOUR OVERLAY

ANCIENT THEATRES
Open air Greek and Roman theatres had good listening
conditions for drama and instrumental recitals.

Located on steep hillsides in quiet rural

locations.
Layouts were semi-circular so audience close
to stage, thus reducing sound energy loss due
to distance.
Tiers were steep (>20 0)to provide good site
lines, reduce attenuation caused by seated
audience, permit sound energy to be reflected
from orchestra floor.
Actors also wore masks with conical
megaphones built in the mouthpieces which
reinforced their voices.

AUDIENCE SEATING AND SIGHT LINE BASICS

AUDIENCE SEATING

Outdoors, sound levels fall off with

distance,
and audience attenuation as it gets
scattered and absorbed grazing
against the audience.
An overhead sound reflector can
provide reflected sound to reinforce
the direct sound .
Providing a hard reflecting enclosure

SIGHT LINE BASICS

Unobstructed sight lines allow full view of performers and

unobstructed propagation of the direct sound.
Sight lines are normally drawn to converge at a point on
stage called The Arrival Point of Sight APS.
Laterally staggered seating layouts can achieve
satisfactory alternate row vision for back to back
dimension B of 40 inches for continental seating and 36
inches for radial and parallel aisle seating.

PLAN, DETAIL AT STAGE

Proscenium theatres should preferably have

lateral sight lines with a preferred view angle
of 300.
The view angle is measured from the
perpendicular at the end of the proscenium
opening.

SECTION

Floor and balconies should be designed so that

entire performance area, performance and scenery
can be viewed by seated audience.
Balconies should not have slope greater than 260
and the top balcony should not be more than 65 ft
above the stage.
A balcony view of the first few rows of seating may
be desirable for a sense of congregation.
The proscenium arch should not obstruct the view
of bottom 7 ft. of the backstage wall.

WHEN SOUND WAVES IMPINGE ON A HARD SURFACE

REFLECTION ( x > 4 ).

If the surface dimension x is larger than 2-4 times the wavelength

of the sound wave, the angle of incidence <i will be equal to the
angle of reflection <r . For example 1000Hz corresponds to a
wavelength of 1.1ft.; therefore a surface dimension of 4 or
41/2 ft will reflect sound energy wavelengths of 1000 Hz and
higher.

DIFFUSION ( x = ).

Is the scattering or random redistribution of a sound wave from a

surface. It occurs when the surface depths of hard surfaced
materials are comparable to the wave lengths of the sound.

This is an extremely important characteristic of rooms used for

musical performances, when satisfactory diffusion is achieved,
audience will have the sensation of sound coming from all
directions at equal levels.

DIFFRACTION ( x < ).

Is the bending or flowing of the sound wave around an object or

through an opening. For example a horn of an automobile located
behind a building can be heard on the other side because the
sound waves bend around the corners of the building.

In auditoriums, impinging sound waves will readily diffract around

panels
that are smaller than their wavelengths, suspended
panels must carefully be designed to be large enough (length and
width) to effectively reflect the desired wavelengths.

PATTERN OF REFLECTED SOUND

CONCAVE REFLECTOR

Concave sound reflecting surfaces such as barrel vaults

(churches) and rear walls (auditoriums) can focus sound,
causing hot spots and echoes in the seating areas.

They are poor distributers of sound and should be avoided

where sound reflecting surfaces are required near source
locations in a room such as the walls near the stage.

FLAT REFLECTOR

Flat building elements, if large enough and properly

oriented can effectively distributer reflected sound.

A slight tilt can project sound energy to the rear of an

auditorium.

CONVEX REFLECTOR

Can be most effective for sound distribution. The reflected

waves diverge, enhancing diffusion which is highly
desirable for music listening.

Reflected sound from convex surfaces is more evenly

distributed across a wide range of frequencies.

RAY DIAGRAM GRAPHICS

Ray diagrams are a good and simple method

to find the path difference between a
reflected sound path and the direct sound
path.
A scaled drawing is required and the
principles that:
< of reflection = < of incidence and
Distance = velocity x time

PATH DIFFERENCE = REFLECTED PATH

- DIRECT PATH
From location 1
path difference = (11+18) -12 = 17
ft.
Excellent for speech and music as it is less
than 23 ft.
From location 2
path difference =(16+26) -33 = 9ft.
Excellent for speech and music as it is less

Useful sound reflections for speech are

those
which come
same conditions
direction as
Sound
Timefrom the
Listening
the source
anddelay
are delayed by less than 30
Path
Differenc
Gap
ms
e (ft)

(ms)

<23

<20

Excellent for speech and

music

23 to 34

20 to
30

Good for speech, fair for

music

34 to 50

30 to
45

Marginal, (blurred)

50 to 68

45 to
60

Unsatisfactory

The initial-time-delay-gap is the time interval between the arrival of the direct
sound and the first reflected sound of sufficient loudness.
It should be less than 30 ms or the path difference should be less than 34 ft for
good listening conditions because sounds within this time interval can combine to
create a single impression in the listeners brain.
Early arriving reflected sound (within 80 ms of direct sound) is important for clarity
of music. Auditoriums with narrow shapes support early reflected sound because the
initial-time-delay-gaps will be short.
Less initial-time-delay-gap increase the listeners sense of intimacy.
The listener in the auditorium above will hear the direct sound first and then after
the initial-time-delay-gap, reflections from the wall (1), Ceiling (2), stage enclosure
(3), and so on.

CEILINGS
CEILINGS

ECHO CONTROL PRINCIPLES

Hard sound reflecting flat ceilings provide

useful sound reflections which cover the entire
seating area of the room.
However, by careful reorientation of the
ceiling, as shown, the extent of useful sound
reflections can be increased so that the rear
seats receive reflections from both ceiling
planes.
For concert halls where long RT is a design
goal high ceilings are preferred and all walls
should be sound reflecting

Potential echo producing surfaces should

be treated with sound absorbing materials
or shaped as shown.
The front portion of the ceiling is lowered
to reduce the delayed reflections from
overhead and reoriented to provide useful
reflections towards the rear of the
auditorium.

REAR WALL
SOUND ABSORBING WALL
TREATMENTS

A flat, sound reflecting rear wall can produce

echoes or unwanted long delayed reflections in
medium to large auditoriums. They can be
treated as shown.
The treatment can be concealed or protected
by using perforated facings which are highly
transparent to sound waves

REAR WALL ECHO CONTROL TREATMENT

Deep treatment can be provided either by

thick sound absorbing materials or thin sound
absorbing materials installed with airspace
behind.

SIDE WALLS
Fan shape (for lecture
rooms)

Rectangular shape (dashed

shape indicates preferred
orientations for lecture rooms)

Lateral reflections help

create a favorable
auditory spatial
impression or intimacyessential for satisfactory
perception of music
performances.
The initial time delay
gap or ITDG is measured
from a listener seated
near the centerline of the
hall, halfway between
the conductor and the
rear wall.
ITDG should be less
than 20 ms
Wide fan shapes and
semi-circular floor plans
do not provide strong
early lateral reflections .
The reverse fan shape
can provide strongest
lateral reflections and
spatial impressions

Stepped shape (alternate

elements of side wall are parallel
to provide lateral reflections
towards audience)

Reverse fan shape (side walls

at rear reflect sound towards
audience)

FLUTTER ECHO
SMALL ROOMS

Caused by the repetitive inter-reflections of

sound energy between parallel or concave
surfaces. It is normally heard as a high
frequency ringing or buzzing .
Prevented by reshaping, providing deep
sound absorption, and splaying (1:10 or >50
tilt) or scalloping smooth surfaces.
It can also occur in non-parallel wallspitched roof flutter.

Sound Absorbing Surfaces Opposite

Sound Reflecting Surfaces
In small rooms the reflected sound will be
minimized by using sound absorbing materials on
adjacent walls or on two opposite corners

CONCAVE SURFACES

Concave wall and ceiling usually

require treatment as they cause
reflected sound to converge at a focal
point or may get reflected along
smooth concave surfaces
called
Creep Echo or the Whispering
Gallery Effect because low voice
levels or whispers can be heard at
considerable distances.

Poor distribution of sound in domed

spaces:

The extent of seating affected by focusing

on the left will be more than shown because
source location on stage will vary

SOUND REFLECTIONS

A good reflector has a hard surface like plaster,

acrylic, gypsum board, sealed wood.
Is significantly larger than the wavelength of the
sound designed to reflect (4 ).
The sound reflecting canopy as shown below
provides useful reinforcement for the direct sound
as well as prevents long delayed reflections and
potential echo conditions from the high ceiling.

VARIABLE SOUND ABSORBERS

When RT must be varied to

satisfy
different
activity
requirements in a room the
sound absorbing treatment can
be designed to be adjustable.
Like Retractable Curtains.
or like Sliding Facings which
have two layers of perforated
material- when the holes are
lined up it acts as an absorber
and when they are staggered
they act as reflectors with
sound
absorbing
material
behind the panels.
They can also be designed to
expose either sound absorbing
or reflecting surfaces.
Like Hinged Panels.
Or like Rotatable Elements.

VARIABLE VOLUME EXAMPLES

Examples
of
auditoriums where the
cubic volume can be
changed
to
match
requirements
of
reflected sound energy
and
reverberance
requirements
of
the
intended performances
and seating capacities
can vary from more
than 3000 to less than
1000

STAGE BASICS

In the thrust (open) and arena

stage types sound reflecting walls
and
ceilings
or
panels
are
extremely
important
to
help
compensate for the directivity of
high frequency speech signals
which are more directional and so
considerably less high frequency
sound is radiated behind the
performer and this part of the
frequency
range
strongly
determines speech intelligibility.
Panels called Stage Enclosure
(reflecting and diffusing) can be
used on stage to surround or
enclose the sources of sound and
will help distribute balanced and
blended sound uniformly in the
audience area. Stage enclosures
also prevent sound energy being
absorbed
by
scenery
(highly
absorbing) in the fly loft and wings.
The surface surrounding the
orchestra should also contain small
irregularities to blend and reflect
high frequency sound.

CANOPIES

Sound
reflecting
panels,
called
Forestage Canopies suspended in
front of the proscenium, reflect sound
energy from the stage to the audience
and decrease the initial time delay
gap. These panels extend the
orchestra shell into the auditorium
which enhances the direct sound
needed for intimacy and can also
reflect
sound
energy
from
the
orchestra pit back to the pit.

The openings between the panels

allow sound energy to flow into the
upper volume so it can contribute to
the low frequency reverberance in the
main auditorium below.

The RT of the stage houses should be

approximately equal to or less than
that of the main auditorium.

BALCONIES
Are used in large auditoriums to reduce
the distance to the rear seats and to
increase seating capacity.
To prevent echoes off the balcony face,
apply deep sound absorbing finish, tilt
or slope the surface facing the stage, so
sound will be reflected towards nearby
audience or use diffusing shapes
(Convex) to scatter sound.

In a Concert Hall the depth D of the under

balcony should not exceed the height H of
the opening for reverberant sound to reach
the rear rows. (D H)
In Opera Houses D should not exceed 1.5
H. (D 1.5 H)
The balcony soffit should be sloped to
reflect sound towards the listeners seated
underneath
In Cinema halls direct
reinforced
sound
from
loudspeakers located behind
the screen allow deeper
balcony depths up to 3H. (D
3H).

Persons seated deep under a

balcony cannot receive useful
reflected sound from the ceiling
and are shielded from reverberant
sound. As the sound is weak and
dull the listening conditions are
poor.

The cantilevered or flying balcony is open at

the rear, allowing reverberant sound to
surround the audience underneath. D can
be more than conventional balconies of the
same height because reverberant energy
will be greater at the rear rows.

CHECKLIST FOR LECTURE ROOMS

MULTIPURPOSE AUDITORIUMS DESIGN

WORSHIP SPACES DESIGN

ROOM ACOUSTIC DESIGN

SOUND ISOLATION