Chapter 6: Proteins

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
describe how amino acids make up protein.
distinguish between essential and nonessential amino acids.
explain why adequate amounts of each of the essential amino acids
are required for protein synthesis.
list the primary functions of protein in the body.
calculate the RDA for protein for an adult when a healthy weight is
given.
describe what is represented by positive protein balance, negative
protein balance, and protein equilibrium.
distinguish between high-quality and low-quality protein and the
sources of each
describe how protein-energy malnutrition can eventually lead to
disease in the body.
develop vegetarian diet plans that meet the bodys nutritional needs.

Introduction
Focus on protein in diet in developing world
crucial, less so in developed world.
17% body weight.
Amino acids are building blocks of protein.
Dietary proteins provide N for protein
synthesis.
Proteins in the body perform a variety of
essential functions.
Proteins can be used to produce energy.

Functions of Proteins

Building blocks of body components

Maintain fluid balance
Contribute to acid/base balance
Building block for hormones and enzymes
Immune function
Gluconeogenesis
Energy yielding

Generic amino acid

NH2

OH

R group

Acid group
Amine group

Classification of amino acids

20 different amino acids
found in balanced diet.
All important.
11 non essential
(dispensable).
Can be synthesized in the
body.
N coming from other amino
acids.

9 essential amino acids

cannot be synthesized.
Must be obtained from
foods

Semi-essential amino acids

ess. AA: methionine --> (semi AA): cysteine
ess. AA: phenyalanine --> (semi AA): tyrosine

If cysteine and tyrosine are not consumed in the

diet, methionine and phenyalanine will be used to
make them

Making of a nonessential amino acid

Phenylalanine
(Essential AA)

Tyrosine

phenylalanine hydroxyase

Phe derived from the diet

(Nonessential AA)

Phenylketonuria
Phenylalanine
(Essential AA)

Tyrosine
phenylalanine hydroxyase

(Nonessential AA)

MISSING; LACKING

Control Intake

Becomes essential

Tyrosine cannot be synthesized and BOTH amino acids must be derived

from foods. BOTH amino acids are now essential. Phe intake must be
carefully monitored to prevent accumulation of toxic products.

Dietary proteins
It is the purpose of proteins in our diet to:
Provide the 9 essential amino acids
Provide the nonessential amino acids or
nitrogen to make the nonessential amino
acids

Animal and plant proteins vary in the

proportion of essential and nonessential
amino acids.
Important to meet amino acid needs over
the course of a day.

Quality of protein
High quality protein or
complete protein
Contains ample amount of
all 9 essential AA
Usually of animal origin.
Important in childrens diet.
Essential amino acids =
30% total protein
Milk is a good idea.

Low quality protein

Generally of plant origin
(soybeans are good).
Deficient or low in one or
more essential AA.

Limiting amino acid

C is the limiting amino acid in this example

CCCCC
AAAAAAAA
RRRRRR

CAR CAR CAR

CAR CAR
R
A A A

The remaining amino acids are used for energy,

converted to fat or CHO All or none principle

Complementary Protein
Food 1
CC
AAAA
RRR

Food 2
CCCC
AA
RRR

CAR CAR CAR

CAR CAR CAR

Complementary Protein
Beans (legumes)
Grains

Nuts/seeds

Vegetables

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Protein synthesis
DNA mRNA Protein

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Translation by ribosomes

Protein turnover
Constant synthesis and degradation.
Allows cells to adapt to changing circumstances
by producing needed proteins.
GI tract lining is continually replaced.
Amino acids are recycled - Essential
Daily an adult makes and degrades 250 300g of
protein many amino acids recycled.
Only about 65 95g of protein consumed daily.

Protein Organization
Primary structure
Sequence of AA

Secondary structure
Bends and folds held
together by bonds

Tertiary structure
3-D shape

Quaternary structure
2 or more proteins
interacting together

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Sickle Cell Anemia

Denaturation of proteins

Heat/acid/alkaline/enzymes
Alteration of the proteins three dimensional structure
dysfunctional peptide bonds intact.

Protein in foods
Water packed tuna
nutrient dense protein
source.
Top 5 sources of
protein in U.S.

Beef
Poultry
Milk
White bread.
Cheese.

The value of plant protein

Plant foods can provide
energy, fiber, Mg and
protein.
NO CHOLESTEROL.
Little saturated fat.
Legumes can be
beneficial particularly
since they contain soluble
fiber.
May cause gas.
This can be reduced by
appropriate cooking and
soaking.

Interest in Soy protein is growing

Soybeans harvested and fed to cattle.
Soy protein is similar to animal protein (used in school
lunches).
High in linoleic acid and some linolenic acid.
Calcium source and bone health.
Reduces risk of osteoporosis.
Contains isoflavones.
Act like plant estrogens.
May lower cholesterol by 10%.
Reducing risk of CVD.
Reduce risk of breast cancer?
Reduced risk of kidney stones.

Digestion of Protein in the Stomach

Proteins are denatured by the cooking (aids digestion) and
the stomach acid.
Gastrin stimulates the release of pepsinogen from the
chief cells in the stomach.
Gastrin also stimulates acid secretion
Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the acid in the
stomach.
Pepsin (an enzyme produced in the stomach) breaks
down proteins into smaller peptides.
Breakdown products of protein digestion then enter the
small intestine.

Digestion of protein in the small intestine

Stimulates the release of GIP, CCK from
the walls of the intestine.
Pancreas releases the protein splitting
enzymes: trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidase into the duodenum.
The enzymes will break peptides into
smaller peptides and amino acids.
Peptides and amino acids are ready for
absorption.

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Protein digestion

Protein Absorption
Active absorption.
Peptide are broken down at the microvilli surface and
within the absorptive cells.
Whole proteins are eventually broken down to amino
acids.
Many different amino acid transport mechanisms.
Amino acids are sent to the liver via portal circulation
where they are combined into proteins, converted into
glucose or fat, used for energy or released into the
circulation.
Few whole proteins are absorbed.

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Absorption of amino acids

Putting proteins to work in the body

Producing vital body
constituents.
Contributing to acid
base balance.
Forming hormones and
enzymes.
Contributing to immune
function.
Forming glucose.
Providing energy.
Maintaining fluid balance.
See figure

Protein needs
It is important to
balance protein intake
with protein losses
protein equilibrium.

RDA for Protein

Protein required to maintain equilibrium
0.8 gm of protein / kg of healthy body weight
154 lb.
= 70 kg
2.2 kg/lb.
70 kg x 0.8 g protein = 56 g protein
kg healthy body wt

RDA for Protein

Increased by ~10-15g/day for pregnancy
Endurance athletes may need another 1.2 1.4g/kg
healthy weight.
No added advantage to exceeding 2.5x RDA.

About 8-10% of total kcals

Most of us eat more than the RDA for protein.
Men in U.s. consume ~ 95g and women 65g daily.

Excess protein cannot be stored as protein.

Converted into glucose or fat and then stored or metabolized.

Older adults should try to eat more.

Is a high-protein diet harmful?

These diets are rich in vitamin

B-6, Fe and Zn.
However, low in plant foods
(fiber), vitamins,
phytochemicals
Intake of animal protein
increases risk for heart
disease (high in saturated fat)
Excessive intake of red meat is
linked with colon cancer.
Burden on the kidney.
Significant in diabetes.

Increase calcium loss in urine.

National Academy of Sciences
recommends no more than 2 x
RDA for protein.

Individual amino acid supplement

Supplement may cause imbalances and
toxicities.
Methionine and tyrosine most likely to cause harm.

Body is designed to handle whole proteins.

Supplement can overwhelm the absorptive
mechanism.
Excess of one amino acid can hamper
absorption of other amino acids.
Stick to whole foods for amino acids

Malnutrition
Kwashiorkor
Inadequate intake of protein combined with an
existing condition.

Marasmus
Protein-Energy Malnutrition.
Protein calorie malnutrition.
Individuals consume too little protein and energy.

Seen in hospitalized patients

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Kwashiorkor
Low protein density diet
Energy needs are
marginally met
Signs and symptoms:
Apathy, listlessness,
failure to grow, poor
weight gain, change in
hair color, nutrient
deficiency, flaky skin,
fatty infiltration in the
liver, massive edema in
the abdomen and legs

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Marasmus
Starving to death
Insufficient protein,
energy, nutrients.
skin and bones
appearance
Little or no
subcutaneous fat
Reduced brain growth

Vegetarian diets
From a necessity to
an option.
Linked to specific
philosophies and
religions.
12 million vegetarians
in U.S.
Increasing in
popularity.
Healthy option.

Why do people become vegetarian

Against animal killing.

Religious beliefs.
Cheaper option.
Realization that animals are fed roughage
that we cannot digest.
Promotes high CHO, vitamin and dietary
fiber intake coupled with low cholesterol
and saturated fat.

Food planning for vegetarians

Vegans.
Eat only plant food.

Fruitarians.
Fruits, nuts and honey.

Lactovegetarians.
Include dairy products and
plant food.

Lactoovovegetarians.
As above plus eggs.

Almost vegetarians
Eat fish.

The Vegan
Requires creative planning.
Grains and legumes used to high quality protein.
Important in children.

Variety is key to providing all essential amino

acids.
Combining vegetables.
Fortified breakfast cereals.
Milk is omitted from vegan diet.
Fortified soy milk a good alternative

Concerns with vegan diet

Vitamin B-12
Iron
Calcium
Complete protein
Children vegetarians
kcal needs
protein needs
nutrient needs