PRAGMATICS George Yule

1. DEFINITIONS AND
BACKGROUND
The study of contextual meaning
communicated by a speaker or writer, and
interpreted by a listener or reader. (G.Yule)
The study of the relation of signs to their
interpreters. (Charles Morris)
The study of the relations between linguistic
forms and its users()Only pragmatics allows
humans into the analysis: their assumptions,
purposes, goals, and actions they perform
while speaking. (G.Yule)

PRAGMATICS IS
1- THE STUDY OF SPEAKER MEANING
WHAT PEOPLE MEAN by their
utterances rather than what the
words or phrases might mean by
themselves.

2- The study of contextual meaning

Importance of the CONTEXT: the
circumstances and the audience or
public.

3-The study of how more gets communicated than said.

The INFERENCES made by listeners

or readers in order to arrive at an
interpretation of the intended
meaning.
A great deal of what is UNSAID is
recognized as part of what is
communicated.
The study of invisible meaning

4-The study of the expression of relative distance

The CLOSENESS or DISTANCE of the

listener or reader determines how much
needs to be said.
For example:
A: there is a store over there (Lets go inside)
B: no (I dont want to go inside)
A: why not? (why do you not want to go
inside?)
B: Im tired. (I dont want to because Im tired.)

IN OTHER WORDS
PRAGMATICS studies HOW PEOPLE MAKE
SENSE OF EACH OTHER LINGUISTICALLY.
For example:
A: So_ did you?
B: Hey_ who wouldnt?

Two friends in a conversation may imply

some things and infer some others without
providing any clear linguistic evidence. So,
pragmatics requires us to make sense of
what people have in mind.

REGULARITY
Luckily, people tend to behave in fairly
REGULAR ways when it comes to using
language. As part of social groups we follow
general expected patterns of behaviour.
For example: I found an old bike. The chain
was rusted and the tyres flat.
It would be pragmatically odd to say:
I found an old bike. A bike has a chain. The
chain was rusted. A bike aslo has tyres. The
tyres were flat.

2.DEIXIS and DISTANCE

DEIXIS: pointing
via langauge
To accomplish this
pointing we use
deictic
expressions or
indexicals.
i.e: Whats that?
(used to indicate
sth. in the
immediate
context.)

Deictic
expressions
depend on the
speaker and
hearer sharing
the same spatial
context, in faceto face spoken
interaction.

Types of indexicals
Person deixis: used to point people.
(me, you)
Spatial deixis: used to point location
(here, there).
Temporal dexis: used to point
location in time (now, then).
i.e: Ill put this here, ok?

PERSON DEIXIS
There are 3 categories:
SPEAKER (I)
ADDRESSEE (YOU)
OTHERS (HE- SHE-IT- THEY)
SOCIAL DEIXIS: forms used to indicate
relative social status. In many languages
deictic categories become markers of
relative social status.
HONORIFICS: expressions that mark that the
addressee is of higher status.

Examples of SOCIAL DEIXIS

In Spanish the T- Usted distinction.
The choice of one form will communicate
something, not directly said, about the
speakers view of his relation with the
addressee.
The higher, older and more powerful speaker
will tend to use the t and viceversa.
Nowadays, the age distinction remains more
powerful than the economic distinction in
many countries.

Using the 3rd person form

Communicates
distance and non Also used to make
familiarity. Also, it
accusations:
has an ironic or
Somebody didnt
humorous
clean up after
purpose.
himself
(less
i.e: Would his
direct than You
highness like some
didnt clean
coffee?

SPATIAL DEIXIS
Forms used to point to
LOCATION
i.e: Here and There
Come and Go
PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISTANCE
When speakers mark how
close or distant something
is perceived to be.
i.e: That man over there
implies psychological
distance.

DEICTIC PROJECTION:
when speakers act as if
they are somewhere else.
i.e: Im not here now.
(telephone answering
machine)
Recording is a
performance for a future
audience in which I
project my presence to
be in the required
location.

TEMPORAL DEIXIS
Forms used to point to location in
time.
i.e: now - then
In contrast to now, the distal
expression then applies to both past
and future time relative to the
speakers present time.
i.e: I was in Scotland then
Ill see you then

DEIXIS AND GRAMMAR

The distinctions for person, spatial,
and temporal deixis can be seen at
work in English grammar structures
such as DIRECT and INDIRECT
(reported)SPEECH.
i.e: Are you planning to be here this
evening?
I asked her.

REPORTED FORM
I asked her if she was planing to be
there that evening
There s a shift from the near
speaker meaning of direct speech to
the away from speaker meaning of
reported speech, with the use of
DISTAL DEICTIC forms.

3. REFERENCE AND
INFERENCE
REFERENCE: an act in which a speaker or
writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener
or reader, to identify something.
Words in themselves do not refer anything.
People refer.
REFERRING EXPRESSIONS: linguistic forms like
proper nouns, definite or indefinite noun
phrases, and pronouns.
The choice of one type of these expressions
rather than another is based on what the
speaker assumes the listener already knows.

FOR EXAMPLE:
Look at him (use of pronoun)
The woman in red (definite article)
A woman was looking at you
(indefinite article and pronoun)
So, reference is tied to the speakers
goals and beliefs about the listener
knowledge in the use of language.

INFERENCE
For successful reference to occur, we must
recognize the role of INFERENCE and
COLLABORATION between speaker and
listener in thinking what the other has in
mind.
Sometimes we use vague expressions relying
on the listeners ability to infer what
referent we have in mind:
i.e: The blue thing, That stuff
We sometimes even invent names.

PRAGMATIC CONNECTION
A conventional association between a
persons name and a kind of object
within a socio-culturally defined
community.
i.e: Can I borrow your Shakespeare?
Picassos on the far wall
Given the context, the intended and
inferred referent is not a person but
probably a book.

THE ROLE OF CO-TEXT

Co- text: the linguistic environment in
which a word is used.
The co-text clearly limits our range of
possible interpretations we might
have for a word.
i.e: Brazil wins World Cup
Brazil would be the referring
expression, and the rest of the
sentence the co-text.

CO- TEXT

CONTEXT

Just a linguistic
The physical
part of the
environment in
environment in
which a word is
which a referring
used.
expression is
used.

GUESS THE CONTEXT FOR THESE

REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
Your ten-thirty just cancelled.
The heart-attack mustnt be moved
A couple of rooms have complained
about the heat

ANAPHORIC REFERENCE
The expressions used to maintain
reference to something or someone
already mentioned.
i.e: A man was looking at us. He then
disappeared.
The initial reference is often indefinite
(A man) and is called the
ANTECEDENT.
The subsequent reference is definite or
a prononun (He) and is called

PRESENTACIN ODT

5. MAXIMS of the COOPERATIVE

PRINCIPLE
1- QUANTITY:
Make your contribution as
INFORMATIVE as required. Do NOT
make it more informative than
required.
2-QUALITY
Make your contribution TRUE. Do NOT
say what you believe is false. Do NOT
say that for which you lack adequate
evidence.

3- RELATION: Be relevant.
4- MANNER: Be perspicuous:
Avoid obscurity of expression
Avoid ambiguity.
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
Be orderly.

These maxims should be recognized as

unstated assumptions we have in conversations

However, there are certain expressions

speakers use to mark that they may
be in danger of NOT fully adhering to
the principles.
HEDGES: cautious notes about how
an utterance should be taken when
giving information.

EXAMPLES OF HEDGES:
Hedges of QUALITY:
As far as I know, theyre married.
I may be mistaken, but I thought I
saw a wedding ring on her finger.
Im not sure if this is right, but I heard
it was a secret ceremony.
He couldnt live without her, I guess

HEDGES OF QUANTITY:
As you probably know, Im terrified of
bugs
So, to cut a long story short, we
grabbed our staff and run
I wont bore you with all the details,
but it was an exciting trip

HEDGES OF RELEVANCE
I dont know if this is important,
but
This may sound like a dumb
question, but
Not to change the subject, but
Oh, by the way
Well, anyway

HEDGES OF MANNER
This may be a bit confused, but
Im not sure if this makes sense,
but
I dont know if this is clear at all,
but

CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE
The basic assumption in conversation
is that, otherwise indicated, the
participants are adhering to the
cooperative principle and the
maxims.
The following examples show a
speaker conveying more than he said
via conversational implicature

a: I hope you brought the bread and

cheese.
b: Ah, I brought the bread.
Speaker B assumes that A infers
that what is not mentioned was not
brought.
a: Do you like ice-cream?
b: Is the Pope catholic?

CONVENTIONAL
IMPLICATURES
In contrast to the previous
implicatures, these ones are NOT
based on the cooperative principles
maxims.
They do NOT have to occur in
conversation and dont depend on
special contexts for interpretation.
They are associated with SPECIFIC
WORDS and result in additional
conveyed meanings.

For example: the English

conjunctions BUT and AND
The interpretation of any utterance with the
word BUT will imply an implicature of
CONTRAST and with AND an ADDITION.
Mary suggested black, but I chose white.
The words EVEN and YET also have
conventional implicature.
Even implies contrary to expectation.
Yet implies that the present situation is
expected to be differerent at a later time.

6. SPEECH ACTS and

EVENTS
Actions performed via utterances are called
Speech Acts.
In English they are commonly known as:
apology, compliment, complaint,
invitation, promise, or request and apply to
the speakers communicative intention.
The circumstances surrounding the utterance
are called the Speech Event and its their
nature that determines the interpretation of an
utterance as performing a particular speech
act.

For example:
This tea is really cold!
This utterance can be interpreted as a
complaint or as a praise, depending
on the circumstances. (If it is winter
or summer, a cold or a hot day, etc.)

SPEECH ACTS
1- The locutionary act:

the

basic act of utterance which

produces a meaningful linguistic
expression.
If you have difficulty in producing a
meaningful utterance (because its a
foreign language or youre
Aha tongueWHA
tied), then you might fail to produce
moko
T??
a locutionary act.

fa

2. ILLOCUTIONARY ACT
The communicative force of an
utterance. We form an utterance with
some kind of function in mind:
An offer, a statement, a promise, a
threat, etc.

3. THE PERLOCUTIONARY
ACT:
The effect of an utterance

Take the next utterance and

state the illocutionary act/force.

Ill see you

later

The same locutionary act can represent

different illocutionary forces:
A prediction

A warning

A promise

How can the speaker assume

that the intended illocutionary
force wil be recognized by the
hearer?

IFIDs: Illocutionary Force

Indicating Devices
Felicity Conditions

IFIDs Felicity

Conditions

The most common IFIDs

are performative
Certain expected or
verbs: verbs that
appropiate
explicitly name the
circumstances for a
illocutionary act being
speech act to be
performed.
recognized as intended.
i.e: I promise you
that
I warn you that
I predict that

i.e: I sentence you to six

months of prison
If the speaker wasnt a
judge in a court, this
performance would be
infelicitous or
inappropiate.

OTHER IFIDs
Other Felicity
conditions

Word order
Stress
Intonation
i.e: Youre going! (I
tell you)

Youre going?( I
request confirmation)
Are you going?( I ask
you if)

General
Conditions: on the
participants, for
example, that they can
understand the same
language, and that
they arent play-acting
or being non-sensical.

Content
Conditions: for
example, a promise
must be about a future
event.

Preparatory Conditions: specific

requirements prior to an utterance in order
for it to count as a particular speech act.

Sincerity conditions: requirements

on the genuine intentions of a
speaker.
For example: for a promise, the
speaker genuinely intends to carry
out the future action.

The essential Condition:

A requirement that the utterance
commits the speaker to the act
performed.
The utterance changes my state from
non-obligation to obligation.

Speech Act Classification

1- DECLARATIONS: speech acts that change
the world via an utterance. The speaker has
to have a specific role, in a specific context,
in order to perform a declaration
appropiately.

I now pronounce you husband and

wife (Priest)
Youre out (referee)

2- REPRESENTATIVES: speech acts

that state what the speaker believes to
be the case or not.
Statements of fact, assertions,
conclusions, descriptions, etc.
The Earth is flat.

Chomsky didnt write about peanuts.

3- EXPRESSIVES: speech acts that

state what the speaker feels.
They express psychological states and
can be statements of pleasure,
pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or
sorrow.
Im really sorry!
Congratulations!

4- DIRECTIVES: speech acts used

to get someone else to do sth.
They express what the speaker wants.
They are: commands, orders,
requests, suggestions. They can
be positive or negative.
Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it
black.
Dont touch that.
Could you lend me a pen, please?

5- COMMISSIVES: speech acts used by speakers

to commit themselves to some future action .

They are: promises, threats, refusals,

pledges, etc.
Ill be back.

We are going to get it right next time.

We wont do that.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

ACTS
DIRECT: when theres a direct
relationship between the structure
(declarative, interrogative,
imperative) and its communicative
function (statement, question,
commnad/request.)
INDIRECT: Indirect relation between
the structure and function.

Example of indirect
speech acts:
Move out of the way! (the only
direct command.)

Do you have to stand in front of the

T.V?(A question functioning as an
indirect command)

Youre standing in front of the T.V!.(

a declarative functioning as an indirect
request)

7. POLITENESS and
INTERACTION
A linguistic interaction is necessarily a
social interaction.
We take part in a wide range of
interactions, mostly with strangers, where
the social distance determined by
external factors is dominant.
However, there are other factors, like
amount of imposition or degree of
friendliness, which are often
negotiated.

POLITENESS
Polite social behaviour within a culture. We
assume that participants in an interaction are
generally aware of such cultural norms and
principles of politeness.
Face: the public self-image of a person. It refers
to that emotional and social sense of self that
everyone has and expects the other sto
recognize.
Politeness in an interaction can be defined as the
means employed to show awareness of another
persons face.

Examples of social distance:

respect or deference
Excuse, Mr. Buckingham, can I talk to
you for a second?

Social closeness: friendliness,

camaraderie, or solidarity.
Hey, Bucky, got a minute?

Face Wants: A persons expectations that

their pulic self-image will be respected .

If a speaker says sth. that represents

a threat to another individuals
expectations, regarding self-image,
its described as a face-threatening
act.
When someone says an utterance
that avoids a potential threat t a
persons face, its called facesaving act.

Example

A: Im going to tell him to stop that awful

noise right now!! (Face-threatening
act)
B: Perhaps you could just ask him if hes
going to stop because its getting late and
we need to sleep (Face- saving act)

Self and Other: Say

nothing
Imagine you arrive at a lecture but
youve forgotten a pen to take your
notes. You think that teh person next to
you may provide the solution.
In this scenario, youre going to be SELF,
and the person next to you OTHER.
You: (look in bag, rummage in, search in
pockets)
The Other: Here, use this.

That was called a Say nothing

approach
Without uttering a word, you have
the intention that your problem will
be recognized.
Many people prefer to have their
needs recognized by others wihout
having to express those needs in
langauge.
When those needs are in fact
recognized, more has been
communicated than was said.

Say something: Off and

On record
Uh, I forgot my pen
Hmm, I wonder where I put my pen
These statements are not directly
addressed t the other. The other can
act as if they have not even been
heard.
Off record expressions: utterances
not
directly addressed t another one.

On record experssions: are direct

address froms.
Give me a pen
Lend me your pen
These are known as bald on recordtheyre the most direct approach, like
the use of imperatives.
Would you lend me a pen, please?
Here we use mitigating devices,
like would and please, that soften the
demand.