Advanced Manufacturing Processes (ALL SLIDES Gaurav Arora)

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
9/15/15
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Manufacturing?
Changing a raw material into a final product
through some techniques/processes.
How could we do that?
By molding the raw material.

By shaping it.
By joining it.
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Category of Manufacturing
Processes
Primary Forming Processes (Additive)
Material Removal or Machining (Subtractive)
Deforming Processes (Formative)
Joining or Fabrication (Assembling)
Finishing and Surface Treatment.
Bulk Property Enhancing Processes (Heat

Treatment)
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Conventional v/s
Unconventional
The manufacturing processes can be
divided into two sub categories :
S.
NO.
Nature
Conventional
Unconventional
1.
Primary
Forming
(Additive)
Casting, Powder
Metallurgy
Various Rapid
Prototyping
Processes
2.
Machining
(Subtractive)
Drilling, Milling,
Shaping, etc.
Various Advanced
Machining
Processes i.e. AFM,
AJM, AWJM etc.
3.
Deforming
(Formative)
Metal Forming
Processes i.e. Cold
Hot Rolling. for
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High Energy Rate

Forming (HERF), 3D
laser Forming
Joining or

Welding
(Atomic
and
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EBM, LBW, USW etc
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4.
Selection of MPs
Type of work material.
Nature and its Hardness.
Melting Temperature of the work material
Production volume or Batch Size.
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Type of work material &

Nature
Metals and most alloys:
Have Relatively High Melting Temperature: Can

be processed in Solid form using Machining and
Deforming Processes
Poor Machinability: AMPs are commonly preferred.
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Nature
Polymers and Epoxy-based Composites:
Lower Melting Point: Can be Processed in Liquid State
Some Secondary Processes like Machining is Needed to
Obtain
Desired Dimensional Accuracy and Surface Quality
Since these Materials Generally Contain Fibers and
Fillers, they Exhibit Brittle Behavior therefore AMPs are
more Suitable
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Nature
Ceramics:
Usually Brittle: Difficult to Process in Solid Form
using Conventional Machining Processes
Primary Forming Processes are used to Create
the Basic Shape
AMPs are Used to Give Final Shape and Surface
Quality
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Batch Size or Production

Volume
Smaller Batch Size Requires Flexible Manufacturing
Processes like Machining, which can Produce Variety of
Geometrical Features.
Larger Batch Size Allows use of Primary Forming and
Deforming processes so as to Offset the Relatively

High Costs of Machine Tools and Tooling
Primary Forming Processes From 75 onwards
Deforming Processes More than 1000
Machining Processes Up to 500
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Batch Size or Production

Volume
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Why AMPs?
To Meet New, Challenging, and
Manufacturing/Shaping Requirements
Products Made of
Unusual
of the
Difficult-To-Process
Materials
i.e.
Ti-alloys,
polymers, ceramics and composites.
and/or
Severe/Limiting Manufacturing Requirements i.e.
Automobiles, Aerospace, Defense, Cutting Tools,
Die
and
Molds,
Nuclear,
Microelectronics,
Biomedical .
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MERCHANT CIRCLE DIAGRAM (MCD)

Merchant: Scientist, Industrialist and
Professor.
Developed a beautiful method to
deal with cutting forces in machining.
Interesting things to be noted by the
work done by Merchant:
1) How it was constructed?
2) How it helps?
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Construction of MCD
MCD showing the cutting forces and their
relations.
MCD is valid for only orthogonal cutting.
Lets take an example of orthogonal turning:
Before going to MCD, we need to see what
are the forces acting on the outgoing chip.
Note: Here, a case of ductile material
producing continuous chip is considered.
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MCD with cutting forces
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Reference:

Manufacturing
MTEProcesses
& CA marks. By Ghosh
and Malik
14
From the work side

There is a slip between the parent body
and the chip.
Thus, a shear force will act on the plane
i.e. Ps.
This Ps (shear force) is accompanied by
a normal force Pn.
Now there are two forces which are
necessary to accomplish machining.
The part i.e. chip coming out from the
parent body is at constant velocity i.e. V.
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From the tool side

Friction force, F acting in the
opposite direction because rubbing
upon the rake face occurs as the chip
goes out.
Normal force, N to help the friction
force or to accomplish machining
acts perpendicular to the F.
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Significance of forces
Helps in constructing the MCD.
Generation of resultant force R
acting on the workpiece because of
consequence of Ps & Pn to
accomplish machining.
Generation of compensatory force
R1 acts in a direction opposite to
R.
Note: R & R1 are action &
reaction forces.
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Simplified MCD
Ps : Shearing Force
Pn : Normal Force
to Ps
F : Friction Force
N : Normal to F
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Pz : Force
generated by the
machine tool in
cutting direction
(known)
Pxy : Force
perpendicular to Pz
Angle beta: Shear
plane angle
Angle Gamma:
Rake angle
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Angle N-bar:
Proper Use of MCD
Determination of several other

relevant forces from a few known
forces without much calculations.
Easy and quick evaluation of

Coefficient of friction (apparent) and
dynamic yield shear strength of work
material.
Development of equations relating
the various forces in machining.
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Limiting Conditions for MCD

MCD is valid for orthogonal cutting
only.
Ratio of F/N gives apparent (not
actual) COF at rake face.
Valid for single shear plane theory.
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Methods for MCD numerical

Graphical Method.
Analytical Method.
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Graphical Method
Problem:During turning of a ductile alloy by a
tool of = 10, it was found that Pz =
1000N, P x = 400N, Py = 300N and =
2.5. Evaluate, using MCD, the value of
F, N, , Ps and Pn for the above
machining.
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Solution
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Problem No. 2
During orthogonal machining with a
cutting tool
having rake angle 10, the chip
thickness is
measured to be 0.4 mm, the uncut
thickness
being 0.15 mm. determine the shear
plane angle
and also the magnitude of the shear
strain.
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Problem No. 3
Determine the coefficient of friction
and
ultimate shear stress for the machining
process:
t1 = 0.25 mm, t2 = 0.75 mm, w = 2.5
mm, = 0o
Pz = 950 N and Pxy = 475 N.
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NONTRADITIONAL/UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES (Advanced Machining Processes)
THESE PROCESSES USE VARIOUS

TYPES OF
ENERGIES AND VARIOUS METHODS
OF
MATERIAL REMOVAL.
THESE DIFFER WIDELY IN NATURE
AND CHARACTERISTICS.
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Classification of Advanced Machining Processes

on the basis of energies involved
Abrasive Jet Machining(AJM)---Mechanical
Ultrasonic Machining(USM)---Mechanical
Abrasive Water Jet Machining(AWJM) ---Mechanical
(Mechanism :- Erosion )
Electrochemical Machining(ECM)---Electrochemical
(Mechanism:- Ion displacement)
Electric Discharge Machining(EDM)---Chemical
Electron Beam Machining(EBM)--- Chemical
(Mechanism:- Fusion and Vaporization)
Laser Beam Machining(LBM)---Thermal
(Mechanism:- Melting, Vaporization and Ablation)
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Abrasive Jet Machining
Material
removal
takes place due to
impingement of the
fine abrasive particles.
Particles move with
high speed air (or gas)
stream.
Size of abrasive
particles : 0.025 mm
diameter.
Velocity of air + jet =
Reference: Ghosh and Malik,
150-300 m/s
Manufacturing Science
tutorial sheet, attendance,
9/15/15
Tip distance = 0.8slides,
mm
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Mechanics of AJM
High velocity abrasive particle
impinges on the workpiece, the
impact results in a tiny brittle
fracture and the air/gas carries away
the dislodged small particle.
More suitable for brittle materials
(hard).
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Process parameters
Abrasive (composition, strength, size
and mass flow rate)
Gas (composition, pressure and

velocity)
Nozzle ( geometry, material,

distance from and inclination to the
workpiece)
All these are evaluated by judging
MRR,
geometry of cut, roughness of surface
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Abrasive
Aluminium oxide and Silicon
Carbide.
Shape does not matter but sharp
edges are essential.
Size of Al2O3 and SiC = 10-15 m
Reuse of abrasives : Not
recommended
Mass flow rate depends upon
pressure and flow rate of gas.
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Typical relations
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Reference:- Ghosh
and Malik, Manufacturing
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Science
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Gas
AJM operates at 0.2 N/mm2 to 1
N/mm2.
Gas includes dry air, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and helium.
High velocity obviously causes a
high MRR even if the mass flow rate
is kept constant.
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Nozzle
It is one of the important element of
AJM.
Continuously in contact so its
material should be hard which should
not wear.
Normally, WC or Sapphire is used.
X-sectional area of orifice : 0.05 mm2
and 0.2 mm2.
Shape of the orifice : rectangular or
circular.
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Nozzle tip distance (NTD)
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Applications and uses of AJM

Normally used for finishing operation
rather than a production cutting
process.
Applications include deburring,
trimming, cleaning, polishing and
drilling.
Common materials on which AJM can
be applied are glass, silicon and
ceramics.
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Water Jet Machining/Water Jet

Cutting
WJM or WJC uses
a
fine,
high
pressure,
high
velocity stream
of water directed
at the workpiece
to cause cutting
of the work
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Reference:- Mikell P. Grover, Fundamentals of modern

manufacturing
38
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WJM/WJC
Also known by the name hydrodynamic machining
but commonly used name in industries is WJC
To obtain fine stream of water a small nozzle
opening of diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm is used.
For cutting to take place, pressure upto 400 MPa
is used and jet reaches a velocity of 900 m/s.
Nozzle unit : Holder of Stainless Steel and jewel
nozzle of made of sapphire, ruby or diamond.
Filtration system must be used to separate
cutting particles.
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Process Parameters
Stand off distance
1) It should be small to avoid
dispersion.
2) Typical Stand off distance is 3.2
mm.
Size of nozzle orifice
Cutting feed rate
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Application of WJM
Plastics
Floor tiles
Leather
Metal polymer lamintes
Glass fibre metal lamintes
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Application of WJM
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Application of WJM
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Advantages
No crushing or burning of work
surface
Minimum material loss
No environmental pollution
Ease of automating the process
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Limitation
Not suitable for cutting brittle

material because of their tendency to
crack during machining.
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Abrasive Water Jet Machining(AWJM)

Using very high speed (2.5 Mach
number) water jet mixed with
abrasives to cut any type of material.
MECHANISM
:
Erosion
without
generating heat .
Eliminates thermal and mechanical
distortion caused in conventional
machining.
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Abrasive Water Jet Machining(AWJM)

AWJM system consists of :1) An intensifier pump to provide HP
water.
2) Abrasive delivery system & cutting
head for producing the abrasive
water jet.
3) Computer controlled manipulator to
provide the desired motion of the
cutting head.
4) A catcher that dissipates the
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AWJM
Abrasive particles generally used
crushed garnet or aluminium oxide
(0.2 to 0.5 mm)
Garnet is widely used because of low
cost and high cutting speed.
Abrasives enter the water jet with
negligible velocity.
Smaller dia focusing tubes produces
more energy. Minimum dia is related
to particle size.
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JET FORMER OR CUTTING HEAD
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JET FORMER OR CUTTING

HEAD
On-Off valve
Orifice
Mixing chamber
Focusing tube
All these are the components of

cutting head.
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CATCHER
Catcher
CNC Table
Abrasive Metering Device
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Process Parameters
Jet Velocity:- Higher the velocity,
more will be the MRR.
Feed Rate:- The speed with which jet
moves past the workpiece to form a
cut.
Abrasive used and their size:- Al2O3
or Garnet of size 0.2 to 0.5 mm are
used.
Work material and its thickness.
Stand off distance.
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AWJM machines
Steels
Non-ferrous alloys
Ti-alloys, Ni-alloys
Polymers
Metal Matrix Composites
Ceramic Matrix Composites
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Applications
Peening:- To induce compressive
stresses in a material.
Cutting:- For 2D and 3D cutting.
Drilling:- For making holes of 2-4 mm
(dia)
Turning
Nuclear Plant Dismantling
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ULTRASONIC MACHINING
(USM)
Mechanical material removal process
for brittle materials using high
frequency oscillations of a shaped
tool using abrasive slurry.
Tool made up of ductile and tough
material is gradually fed with a
uniform force.
Slurry
consists
of
water
and
abrasives.
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USM
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Reference:Saurabh Swains Thesis,
IIT
Roorkee
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Ultrasonic Machine
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tutorial Swains
sheet, attendance,
Reference:-slides,
Saurabh
Thesis,
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IIT
57
USM
Reference:- Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur notes

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THEORY OF USM
A tool vibrates with at an ultrasonic frequency
(19-25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15-50
m over the workpiece.
Machining zone is flooded with hard abrasive
particles generally in form of water slurry form.
As the tool vibrates, the abrasive particles acts
as the indenters and indent both the workpiece
and tool.
Removal takes place by abrasive as: Crack
initiation, Propagation and brittle fracture of the
material.
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Mechanism of USM
Hammering of abrasive particles on
the work surface by the tool
Impact of the free abrasive particles
on the workpiece
Erosion due to cavitation
Chemical action associated with the
fluid
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MRR EXPRESSION
MRR =
Reference:- Ghosh & Malik, Manufacturing Science
SHAW
THEORY:It has number of
limitations. It does not correctly predict the
effects of A, F and .
MRR increases with increase of F. It is
confirmed by the above relation. However, in
actual, MRR starts decreasing after some
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slides, tutorial sheet,
attendance,
61
value of F because
the
abrasive
grains
get
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Process Parameters
Frequency
Amplitude
Static load (feed force)
Hardness ratio of the tool and the
workpiece
Grain size
Concentration of abrasives in the
slurry
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ABRASIVE + FLUID =
SLURRY
Most common abrasives used:1) Boron carbide (B4C)
2) Silicon carbide (SiC)
3) Corundum (Al2O3)
4) Diamond
5) Boron Silicarbide
B4C is the best and more efficient amongst
the
rest but it is expensive.
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ABRASIVE + FLUID =
SLURRY
Water is most commonly used.
Others are benzene, glycerol and
oils.
NOTE:- It has been found that MRR
tends to
decrease with increasing viscosity.
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Materials Application
Metals and alloys ( hard and brittle
only)
Semiconductors
Non metals
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Limitations
Low MRR
Tool wear
Depth of holes and cavities are small
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Topics Covered till

04/09/2012
1) Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
2) Water Jet Machining (WJM)
3) Abrasive Water Jet Machining
(AWJM)
4) Ultrasonic Machining
All these processes utilize mechanical
energy to
machine a material.
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ELECTROCHEMICAL
PROCESSES
Important group of NON-TRADITIONAL PROCESSES,
uses electrical energy to remove material.
Electrical energy is used in combination with
chemical reactions to accomplish machining, thus
identified as electrochemical processes.
These processes are the reverse of electroplating.
Workpiece must be a conductor in electrochemical
machining.
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ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSES
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)
ELECTROCHEMICAL DEBURRING (ECD)
ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING (ECG)
ECD and ECG are the special form of ECM.
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ECM
Reference:- Mikell P. Grover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing
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Theory of ECM
Tool is provided with a constant feed
motion.
Electrolyte is pumped at high
pressure through the tool and the
small gap between the tool & the
workpiece.
Electrolyte is so chosen that the
anode is dissolved but no deposition
takes place on the cathode.
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Process Parameters
Power Supply :
1) Type Direct Current.
2) Voltage 2 to 35 volts.
3) Current 50 to 40,000 A
4) Current Density 0.1 to 5
A/mm2
Working gap : 0.1 to 2 mm
Feed rate : 0.5 to 15 mm/min
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Contd
Electrode material : Brass, Bronze &
Copper
Avg. Roughness (Ra) : 0.2 to 1.5 m
Electrolyte :
1) Material : NaCl and NaNo3
2) Temperature : 20-50 oC
3) Flow rate : 20 lpm per 100 A
4) Pressure : 0.5 to 20 bar
5) Dilution : 100 g/l to 500 g/l
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Characteristics of ECM
Tool & Work Material electrical
conductive
Atomic Level Dissolution.
Surface Finish Excellent.
Almost Stress Free Machined Surface.
No Thermal Damage.
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Topics for presentation

1.
2.
3.
4.
Green Manufacturing
Surface Engineering
Ultra Precision Grinding
Corrosion A Type of
Wear
5. Atomic Layer Deposition
(ALD)
6. Abrasive Flow
Machining (AFM)
7. Flexible Manufacturing
Systems
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8. Rapid Prototyping (RP)

9. Smart Materials
10.Explosive Welding
11.Product design and
Development
12.Powder Metallurgy
13.Polymer Matrix Composites
14.Group technology
15.Measurement and
Inspection
16.Friction Stir Welding

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Electrochemistry of ECM
process
The metal from the anode is
dissolved
electrochemically
and
hence the MRR based on FARADAYS
laws will depend on atomic weight,
valency, the current passed and the
time for which the current is passed.
At cathode, only H2 gas is evolved
and no other reaction takes place,
thus
shape
of
tool
remains
unaffected.
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Reactions at Anode &

Cathode
Referencevisit
: Version
2, ME IIT Kharagpur
for
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Reactions at Anode &

Cathode
Anode:Fe
Fe2+ + 2eCathode:- H2O + 2eH2 + 2OHFe2+ + 2OH-
Fe(OH)2
Fe + H2O
Fe(OH)2
+ H2
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ECM Equipment
9/15/15
for
Referencevisit
: Version
2, ME IIT Kharagpur
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ECM equipment
Power Supply ( 500 to 40,000 A)
Electrolyte Filtration and delivery
system
Tool feed system
Working Tank
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Electrolyte
Functions of Electrolyte:1) Should complete the electrical
circuit.
2) Allow desirable machining
reactions.
3) Carries away heat generated
during
process.
4) Carries away products of reaction
from
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Electrolyte
Properties of electrolyte to serve the
function:
1) Highly electrical conductive.
2) Low viscosity & high specific heat.
3) Chemical stability
4) Resistance to formation of passive
film on w/p
5) Non corrosive, non toxic, readily
available and cheap.
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Material Removal Rate

MRR = (A I )/ (Z F) kg/s
where, A = Atomic weight of workpiece
I = Current, amperes
Z = Valency of work material
F = Faradays constant = 96540
coulombs
Volumetric MRR = (A I )/ (Z F) * w mm3/s

where w is the density of work material.
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Problem : ECM
Calculate the MRR and the electrode feed rate in the ECM of
an
iron surface that is 25 x 25 mm2 in cross-section using NaCl in
water as electrolyte. The gap between the tool and the work
piece is 0.25 mm. The supply voltage is 12 V. The specific
resistance of electrolyte is 3 -cm.
Solution:- Use MRR formula and resistance & resistivity
relation
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Problem No.2
In ECM operation of pure iron an
equilibrium gap of 2 mm is to be
kept. Determine supply voltage, if
the total overvoltage is 2.5 V. The
resistivity of the electrolyte is 50 mm and the set feed rate is 0.25
mm/min.
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Process Parameters : ECM

Feed Rate : More feed rate results in more MRR.
Improves surface finish and tolerance control.
Current : More current leads to heating of
electrolyte and results in higher evolution of
hydrogen and leads to drop in voltage.
Concentration : Low concentration results in
better surface finish and finer tolerance control.
Voltage
:
Lower
voltage
decreases
the
equilibrium machining gap and results in better
surface.
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Advantages and Limitations

Complex 3-D surfaces can be
machined
No cutters marks, so better surface
finish
Tool wear is practically nil so more
products can be produced per tool.
Sharp interior edges are difficult to
produce.
Use
of
corrosive
media
as
electrolytes makes it difficult to
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Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

Material removal by a controlled
erosion thro a series of electric
spark.
Mainly for economic machining of
extremely low machinability ( Ex:Super alloys, advanced ceramics and
composites)
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Reference : http://infohost.nmt.edu/~ljacobso/Superalloy
%20Slides.pdf
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Reference : http://infohost.nmt.edu/~ljacobso/Superalloy
%20Slides.pdf
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Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
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Theory
When a discharge takes
place
between two points of anode and
cathode, the intense heat generated
near the zone melts and evaporates
the materials in the sparking zone.
If both the electrodes are of same
material, the anode erodes faster.
Gap between tool and w/p is called
as spark gap.
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Mechanics of EDM
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Sequence of events in EDM

1. With the application of voltage, an
electric field builds up between the
two electrodes at the position of
least resistance.
2. The
ionization
leads
to
the
breakdown
of
dielectric
which
results in the drop of the voltage
and the beginning of flow of current.
3. Electrons and ions migrate to anode
and cathode at very high current
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Sequence of events in EDM

4. Column of vapour begins to form and localised
melting of work starts. The discharge channel
continues to expand along with a substantial
increase of temperature and pressure.
5. When the power is switched off, current drops,
no further heating and discharge collapses.
Portion of metal evaporates and portion of
metal will be ejected and remaining solidifies.
6. A tiny crater is thus generated at the surface.
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Mechanics of EDM
Material removal from the cathode is
comparatively less than from the anode:1) The momentum with which the stream
of electrons strikes the anode is much large
than that due to impingement of positive
ions.
2) The pyrolysis of dielectric fluid creates a
thin film of carbon on the cathode.
3) A compressive force is developed on the
cathode.
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Process Parameters
Open circuit voltage, Vo (80 Volts)

Working voltage, Vw (65-74 Volts)
Maximum Current, Io (400 Amp)
Pulse on time, ton (2-2000 s)
Pulse off time, toff
Spark Gap, (0.0125-0.125 mm)
Polarity : Straight polarity : tool (-ve)
Dielectric medium
External flushing through the spark gap
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Characteristics of EDM
The process can be used to machine any
workpiece but it must be electrically conductive.
Material removal depends upon thermal
properties (, m , Cp , K) of work material rather
than its strength, hardness etc.
Physical tool is required and geometry of tool is
positive impression of the geometric feature to
be machined.
Tool wear depends on thermal properties of tool
material
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Characteristics of EDM
Though the local temperature rise is
rather high, still due to very small pulse
on time, there is no enough time for the
heat to diffuse and thus almost no
increase in bulk temperature takes
place. Thus, heat affected zone is limited
to 2-4 micrometer of the spark crater.
Taper cut and over cut not desirable but
occurs during drilling.
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Dielectric
It should be thermally resistant. It should not
dissociate.
Generally, kerosene and deionised water is
used as dielectric fluid.
It should provide oxygen free surface.
It should have strong dielectric resistance so
that it does not break electrically and at the
same time ionise when electrons collide with
the molecules.
Dielectric medium should be flushed regularly
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Tool materials & properties

Electrode should not wear by impingement of
ions.
Localized temp rise should be less.
Impartment of shape on the tool should be easy.
High electrical conductivity, so that cold emission
of electrons takes place and less bulk heating
should occur.
High thermal conductivity, for the same heat load,
local temp rise would be less.
High density so that less dimensional loss or
inaccuracy.
High melting point, for the same load, leads to
less tool wear. visit menotes-in.webnode.com for
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Contd
Graphite
Electrolytic oxygen free copper
(density, electrical conductivity,
thermal conductivity is high but
costly)
Tellurium copper : 99% Cu and 0.5%
tellurium
Brass
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Flushing
Flushing refers to the method in
which the dielectric fluid flows
between the tool and the workpiece
The debris should be removed
quickly
Short circuiting and low material
removal rate problems will occur with
poor flushing
Optimum dielectric flushing rate of
about 13ml/s while machining AISI 01
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Flushing method
1.
2.
3.
4.
Normal Flow
Reverse Flow
Jet Flushing
Immersion Flushing
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Normal Flow
In this method fluid is introduced
under pressure through one or more
passages in the tool and then forced
through the gap between the tool
and workpiece.
The location of flushing should be in
areas where the deepest material is
to be removed.
This method can be used by making
hole in workpiece without harming it.
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Reverse Flow
To reduce the taper produced, the
reverse flow can be used.
Since the chips are flowing through
the workpiece so no side sparks will
produce.
Typical pressure differentials are 65
to 90 kPa.
Reverse flow is achieved by applying
vacuum to the manifold.
Particularly suitable for deep cavity
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Jet Flushing
Direct jet is used for flushing at the
machining zone.
Used for machining of long narrow
slot or cavity in a workpiece.
Machining time is longer in this case.
Important
characteristics
:
distribution of the nozzles, flow rates,
angles of nozzles and cavity layout.
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Immersion Flushing
It is possible to allow the cutting to
take place without any pumping of
the fluid and by simple immersion.
A little agitation may be provided by
relative movement of the tool and by
adding a vibration.
This is called immersion flushing.
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Applications
All conducting metals and alloys.

Blind complex cavities
Micro holes for nozzles
Through cutting of non circular holes
Narrow slots
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Advantages
Material removal rates are almost
comparable with that of conventional
machining processes
Any complex shape required in dies and
mould can be made easily.
The process is not affected by the hardness
of the work material
Actual surface produced consists of small
craters, which may help in retention of
lubricants.
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Disadvantages
Wear rate of tool is high, so sometimes
more than one tool may be required to
finish the job
Workpiece should be electrically conductive
The energy required for the operation is
higher than conventional process and
hence will be more expensive
Surface tends to be rough for larger
material removal rates
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Topics Covered till

26/09/2012
1) Abrasive Jet Machining
(AJM)
2) Water Jet Machining
(WJM)
3) Abrasive Water Jet
Machining (AWJM)
4) Ultrasonic Machining
1. Electrochemical Machining
(ECM)
2. Electric Discharge
Machining (EDM)
utilizes
utilizes
( Electric + Chemical Energy)
(Mechanical Energy)
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Electro optical- thermal

processes
Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Also known as thermal beam
processes
Mechanism of material removal : Melting and Rapid vaporization due
to intense
heating by the electrons and laser
beam
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Electron Beam Machining

EBM is equipment intensive process
i.e. equipment is the heart of
machining process.
In EBM, electron beam gun is the
heart of the process.
EB gun operates under vacuum.
The whole structure (next slide) is
under vacuum.
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Electron Beam Gun
Reference visit
:- Version
2, ME, IIT Kharagpur
for
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EB Gun Theory
Cathode : Tungsten or Tantalum,
filament type cathodes.
Potential difference applied across
filament so that its temperature goes
about 2500C
Thermo-ionic electrons are emitted
by cathode once it reaches 2500C
As cathode is negatively biased, so
electrons are repelled by cathode
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EB Gun Theory
Just next to cathode, bias grid is
important part of gun because it
controls the flow of electron.
This is also negatively biased so that
electrons do not get collected on it or
rather concentrated.
Followed to this, there is anode which
is positively biased.
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EB Gun Theory
Electrons get attracted by anode and
accelerated.
As they pass this anode section, they
achieve a velocity which is half of
velocity of light.
So, they are highly energetic.
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EB Gun Theory
Following the anode, there are two
more sections:Magnetic lens and
Aperture
Function of magnetic lens is to focus
or
concentrate
the
beam
of
electrons.
Aperture is to capture the stray
electrons and helps in concentrating
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EB Gun Theory
Electromagnetic
lens,
which
ultimately focusing the electron
beam onto the workpiece.
Deflector coils helps in deflecting the
beam
(in case if desired geometry was not
achieved)
Telescope and Illuminator : Align the
electron beam with the workpiece.
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EB Gun Theory
Vacuum gage port : For measuring or
monitoring the vacuum inside the
gun
Diffusion pump : For maintaining
vacuum in the gun.
Typically, 10-4 - 10-6 Torr pressure is
maintained inside gun.
( 1 Torr = 1 mm of Hg )
Vacuum is the necessary condition
for EBM.
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EB Gun Theory
Slotted disc : Purpose of slotted disc
is to restrict the vapor's interaction
with electron window or obstructing
the window of electrons.
It is synchronized with electron beam
and allows electron beam to interact
the workpiece but not the workpiece
vapors.
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Parts of EB gun
Cathode
High voltage power supply
Bias grid : pulse mode operation
Anode
Magnetic lens
Aperture
Electromagnetic lens : focussing lens
Deflector coils
Lighting system and telescope for alignment
Rotating slotted disc
Vacuum pumps : diffusion pump
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Diffusion pump
Reference :- Version 2, ME, IIT Kharagpur

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Mechanism of Material
removal
Thermo - ionic electrons
Acceleration of electrons due to anode
potential
High velocity beam of electron
Shaping and focusing of electron beam
Impingement of high velocity electron
beam on the work
Spot size : 10 100 micron
Heating, Melting and Vaporization
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Contd
Localized
heating
by
focused
electron beam
Gradual formation of hole by
penetration of melt-vaporization front
Penetration till auxiliary support
Expulsion of any molten material at
the top by high vapour pressure of
auxiliary material
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Process Parameters
The accelerating voltage (100 kV)

The beam current (250 A 1 A)
Pulse duration (50 s 50 ms)
Energy per pulse ( 100 J/pulse)
Power per pulse
Lens current
Spot size (10 m 500 m)
Power density
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Contd
Power density is a derived variable
which basically indicates how fast it
can machine.
Power density depends upon K.E. and
spot size.
Power
density
depends
upon
accelerating voltage, beam current
and pulse time.
MRR in EBM is governed by Power
density.
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EBM Set-Up
Reference:www.slideshare.net
for
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Problem no.1
For cutting a 150 m wide slot in a 1
mm thick tungsten sheet, an electron
beam with 5 kW power is used.
Determine the speed of cutting.
Solution :- Use MRR and Power
Expression.
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Expression of electron depth

= (2.6 X 10-17 V2 ) / ;
where, = range in mm,
V = accelerating voltage in V,
= density of material in kg/mm3
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Problem no. 2
During drilling of holes in a steel
workpiece by EBM, an accelerating
voltage of 150 kV is used. Determine
the electron range.
Solution :- Use penetration, voltage
and density relationship.
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Materials Application, Limitations

etc.
All materials can be machined.
Very
high
specific
energy
consumption, necessity of vacuum,
expensive machine.
Shape Application :- Drilling fine
holes, cutting contours in sheets and
cutting narrow slots.
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Laser Beam Machining

Laser is a highly coherent beam of
electro-magnetic
radiation
with
wavelength varying from 0.1- 70 m.
Lasers used :- Ruby laser , CO2 N2
laser.
Mechanism :- Utilizing the energy of
coherent photons or laser beam,
which is mostly converted into
thermal energy upon interaction with
most of the materials.
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Laser Beam Machining : MECHANICS

Interaction of laser beam with work
material,
Heat conduction and temperature
rise,
Melting, Vaporization and Ablation.
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LBM : The Lasing Process

Lasing process describes the basic
operation of laser, i.e. generation of
coherent (both temporal and spatial)
beam of light by light amplification
using stimulated emission.
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Lasing Action : Theory

There is a gas in a cylindrical glass vessel.
This gas is called the lasing medium.
One end of the glass is blocked with a
100% reflective mirror and the other end is
having a partially reflective mirror.
Population inversion can be carried out by
exciting the gas atoms or molecules by
pumping it with flash lamps. Then
stimulated emission would initiate lasing
action.
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Contd
Stimulated emission of photons could
be in all directions. Most of the
stimulated photons, not along the
longitudinal direction would be lost
and generate waste heat. The
photons in the longitudinal direction
would
form
coherent,
highly
directional, intense laser beam.
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Solid State Laser
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Solid State Laser Operation

The flash tube is operated in pulsed
mode by charging and discharging of
the capacitor. Thus the pulse on time
is decided by the resistance on the
flash tube side and pulse off time is
decided by the charging resistance.
There is also a high voltage switching
supply for initiation of pulses.
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Application
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Application
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Advantages
In laser machining there is no physical tool. Thus no
machining force or wear of the tool takes place.
Large aspect ratio in laser drilling can be achieved
along with acceptable accuracy or dimension, form
or location
Micro-holes can be drilled in difficult to machine
materials
Though laser processing is a thermal processing
but heat affected zone specially in pulse laser
processing is not very significant due to shorter
pulse duration.
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Limitations
High initial capital cost

High maintenance cost
Not very efficient process
Presence of Heat Affected Zone
specially in gas assist CO2 laser
cutting
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Casting
Primary method of producing parts or
components.
It means pouring molten metal into a
refractory mould with a cavity of the shape
to be made, and allowing it to solidify.
When solidified, metal object is taken out
from mould either by breaking or taking
the mould apart.
The solidified object is called casting.
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Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible
Disadvantage: production rates often limited
by time to make mold rather than casting
itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is

made of metal and can be used to
make many castings
Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage:
limited by need to146
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slides,geometries
tutorial sheet, attendance,
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Casting Terms
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Reference :- P. N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology,

menotes-in.webnode.com for
Volume-1 visit
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Gating design
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Reference :- P. N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology,

Volume-1 visit
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Gating System Design

Objective is to fill the mould in the
smallest time.
The time for complete filling of a
mould termed as pouring time.
Standard methods to calculate the
pouring time for different casting
materials.
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Advanced Casting Processes
Vacuum Mould Casting

Squeeze Casting
Evaporative Pattern Casting
Ceramic Shell Casting
Continuous Casting
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Vacuum Mould Casting
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Reference:- Mikell
P. Grover, Fundamentals of Modern
slides, tutorial
sheet, attendance,
Manufacturing
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Evaporative Pattern Casting

(EPC)
Expanded Polystyrene Casting
Process/
Lost Foam Casting/
Lost Pattern Casting/
Evaporative Foam Process/
Full Mold Process.
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Investment Casting
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for
Reference:- Mikell
P. Grover, Fundamentals
of Modern
Manufacturing
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EPC
This is similar to Investment casting
except foam is used instead of wax.
This process takes advantage of the
low boiling point of foam to simplify
the investment casting process by
removing the need to melt the wax
out of the mold.
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EPC :- Theory
It uses a mold of sand packed around
a polystyrene foam pattern that
vaporizes when the molten metal is
poured into it.
The
polystyrene
foam
pattern
contains sprue, risers and gating
system, and if needed internal cores.
The mold does not have to be
opened into cope and drag sections.
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EPC
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Reference:- Mikell P. Grover, Fundamentals of Modern

Manufacturing for
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Commonly Cast Metals

Cast Iron
Aluminium Alloys
Steels
Nickel Alloys
Size range :- 0.5 kg to several tonnes.
Minimum wall thickness :- 2.5mm (no upper
limit)
Typical surface finish :- 2.5 to 25 m (RMS)
Typical linear tolerance :- 0.005mm/mm
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Machining
Machining is a process of gradual removal of
excess material from the raw (sheet/rod) in the
form of chips.
The form of machined chips depend mainly upon :1. Work material
2. Material and geometry of the cutting tool
3. Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to
some extent on depth of cut
4. Machining environment or cutting fluid that
affects temperature and friction at the chip-tool
and work-tool interfaces.
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Mechanism of chip
formation
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Mechanism of chip
formation
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Contd
The uncut layer deforms into a chip after it
goes through a plastic deformation in the
primary shear zone.
Just after its formation, the chip flows over
the rake surface of tool and strong adhesion
between the tool and the newly formed chip
surface results in some sticking.
Thus, the chip material at this surface
undergoes a further plastic deformation,
despite of sticking.
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Contd
Under
suitable
conditions,
the
machining operation is smooth and
stable and produces continuous
ribbon like chips.
At some high speed, the temperature
increases and the tendency of the
plastically deformed material to
adhere to the rake face increases
and a lump if formed at the cutting
edge. This is called a built-up edge
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Types of chips
Continuous chips without BUE:1. Ductile material
2. Small uncut thickness
3. High cutting speed
4. Large rake angle
5. Suitable cutting fluid
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Types of chips
Continuous chips with BUE:1. Stronger adhesion between chips and
tool face
2. Low rake angle
3. Large uncut thickness
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discontinuous chips:Low cutting speed

Brittle work material
Small rake angle
Large uncut visit
thickness
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Machinability
Machinability which loosely means
the ease of machining.
For a given operation, the
machinability depends upon:1. Machining forces and power
consumption:- When the strength of the
tool is a matter to worry about, this
criterion is to be considered.
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Machinability
2. Tool life:- The length of the period
for which a tool can be used is
defined as tool life. This is also
linked with the productivity and
economics and can be very good
index for an overall judgment of a
machining operation.
3. Surface finish:- Quality of finish can
be concerned in some situations.
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Non Diffusion Welding

The three principal ways in which non
fusion welding is made to occur are
(1) by pressure and gross deformation,
called as pressure welding;
(2)
by
friction
and
microscopic
deformation, called friction welding;
and
(3) by diffusion, without or with some
deformation, called diffusion welding
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Explosive Welding
A type of non fusion welding.
The key feature of all non fusion
welding processes is that welds can
be produced without the need
for melting or fusion.
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Principles of Explosive
Welding
Detonator
Welding arrangement
consists of three
components Base component
Prime component
Explosive.
Base component
remains stationary,
supported by anvil.
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prime
component
Base
component
Component
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Principles of Explosive
Welding
Prime component is
Detonation
placed either parallel or
at an angle to the base.
Explosive is distributed
over top surface of
Prime
Weld
component
prime component.
Jet
Upon detonation, prime
Base
component
component collides
with base component
Action between components
to complete welding. during explosion welding.
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ATOMIC BONDING
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Process Variables and Controls

Variables
Explosive
Pressure
Collision Velocity
1
P V 2
Collision Angle
4
Prime Component Velocity plate density
V = charge velocity
These are Controlled By:

Component Mass
Explosive Charge
Initial Geometry - Standoff Distance or
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APPLICATIONS
Major areas of the use of this method are
heat exchanger tube sheets and pressure
vessels.
Joining of dissimilar metals - Aluminium to
steel, Titanium alloys to Cr Ni steel, Cu to
stainless steel, Tungsten to Steel, etc.
Attaching cooling fins .
Joining of pipes and tubes.
Other applications are in chemical process
vessels, ship building industry etc.
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ADVANTAGES
Extremely large surfaces can be
bonded.
No effect on parent properties.
Small quantity of explosive used.
Can bond many dissimilar, normally
non-weld able metals.
Minimum fixturing/jigs.
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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Plasma means a gas that has been heated
to a sufficiently high temperature so that it
is transformed into an ionized condition
and is able to conduct an electric current.
Plasma arc welding is an inert gas nonconsumable electrode welding method,
utilizing a transferred, constricted arc.
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a advanced
version of the tungsten inert gas (TIG)
welding process
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PAW
As the orifice gas passes through the torch
to the work piece, it is heated by the arc,
gets ionized and passes through the arc
constricting nozzle at an accelerated rate.
Since this flow alone may not be adequate
to protect the molten puddle from
atmospheric
contamination,
auxiliary
shielding gas is provided through an outer
gas cup on the torch.
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Advantages of Plasma
Welding
Less sensitivity to changes in Arc length.
Recessed electrode reduces the possibility of
tungsten inclusions in the weld and can
substantially increase the period between
electrode dressings resulting in increased life.
Weld in a single pass up to 6 mm plates in
square butt position and 10 mm plates in only
two passes.
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Contd.
Keyhole mode of welding gives smaller
heat affected zone resulting in reduced
strength loss at the joint for heat
treated metals, promotes less grain
growth which gives better ductility.
Reduced weld time results in less
embrittlement
by
carbides
and
complex intermetallic compounds for
stainless steel and super alloys.
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Contd
Equalization of distortion stresses
results in less residual stress.
Less filler metal required in keyhole
mode significantly reduces porosity.
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Ultrasonic (Friction)
Welding
The source of motion in friction
welding can be pure mechanical
vibration or ultrasonically induced
vibration.
When ultrasonic vibrations are
employed the process is called as
ultrasonic welding.
Amplitude and frequency is different
from conventional friction welding.
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Four variations of USW

As per AWS:1. Spot
2. Ring
3. Line
4. Seam
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Ultrasonic spot welding system
a) General Diagram for lap joint; b) Close view for direction

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Principle
Its a solid state welding process in
which two components are held
together under clamping force.
Oscillatory shear stresses are applied
at interface to cause coalescence.
Oscillatory motion breaks down the
surface films to allow intimate
contact and strong metallurgical
bonding between surfaces.
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Contd
Heating at interfaces takes place due
to interfacial rubbing and plastic
deformation but the temperature rise
is below the melting point of
materials.
No filler metals, fluxes, shielding
gases etc. are required in USW.
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Process Parameters
Ultrasonic Transducer :- Converts the
electrical energy into high frequency
vibrational energy.
Typical Frequency range:- 15 to 75 kHz.
Amplitude range :- 0.018 to 0.13 mm.
Clamping pressure are well below those used
in cold welding.
Welding time :- Less than 3 seconds.
Workpiece thickness :- Typical case less than
3 mm.
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Advantages
Used in health care industries due to clean
welds.
Increased flexibility and versatility.
Possibility
to
join
large
structures
(polymers/plastics case only).
Fast, economical and easily automated.
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Applications
Electronic appliances like switches, sensors
and data storage keys.
Assembly of Aluminium sheet metal panels.
Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels.
Wire terminations and splicing in electrical
and electronics industry.
Medical parts like filters, catheters, medical
garment and masks.
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Diffusion Welding (DFW)

Solid state welding results from the
application of heat and pressure.
Usually in controlled atmosphere,
with sufficient time allowed for
diffusion and coalescence to occur.
Primary mechanism :- Solid state
diffusion, which involves migration of
atoms across the interface between
contacting surfaces.
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DFW
Other names for this process:1) Diffusion Bonding;
2) Solid State Bonding;
3) Pressure Bonding;
4) Hot Press Bonding;
5) Hot Pressure Bonding;
6) Forge Welding.
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Principle steps of DFW

1) Initial Asperity Contact.
2) First Stage Deformation and
Interfacial Boundary formation.
3) Secondary stage grain boundary
migration and pore elimination.
4) Third stage volume diffusion and
pore elimination.
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Schematic of 3-step mechanistic

model of diffusion welding
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Process Parameters
Temperature
Time
Pressure
Amongst the three, temperature is more
important. (Arrhenius Relationship )
D = Do e-Q/kT
D = Diffusion coefficient at temperature T,
k = Boltzmanns Constant,
Q = Activation Energy for diffusion to occur.
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Contd
Time is important because diffusion
takes time to occur, since for atoms
to jump from site to site takes time.
Thus, the distance over which
diffusion occurs depends on time:x = C (Dt)0.5
where x = diffusion distance, D =
Diffusion Coefficient, t = time, C =
constant.
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Advantages
Metals as well as ceramics can be joined
directly to form a completely solid state
weld
Dissimilar materials either by class or type,
including metal-to-ceramic joints, can be
joined directly or with the aid of a
compatible filler or intermediate.
Large areas can be bonded or welded,
provided uniform intimate contact can be
obtained and sustained.
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Contd
There will be no heat-affected zone
as such, since the entire assembly in
which the diffusion weld is being
made is virtually always heated to
the same temperature.
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Applications
The process is economical only when close
dimensional tolerances, expensive materials, or
special material properties are involved.
One excellent example, however, is titanium for
aerospace applications.
Other metals and alloys that can be diffusion
welded are nickel alloys, low-carbon steels, and
aluminum alloys.
Dissimilar metal combinations, as well as many
combinations of ceramics of similar and
dissimilar composition can be diffusion welded.
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STANDARDIZATION
It is a process of formulating and
applying rules for orderly approach to
a specific activity for the benefit and
with the cooperation of all concerned
in particular.
This is done for the promotion of
overall economy, taking due account
of functional conditions and safety
requirements.
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Concept of
Interchangeability
In mass production, the repetitive
production and their components
entirely depends upon
interchangeability.
When one components assembles
properly (and which satisfies the
functionality
aspects
of
the
assembly/product) with any mating
component, both chosen at random,
then
it
is
known
as
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Concept of
Interchangeability
In other words, it is a condition which
exists when two or more items
possess such functional and physical
characteristics so as to be equivalent
in performance and durability; and
are capable of being exchanged one
for the other without alteration of the
items themselves, or of adjoining
items, except for adjustment, and
without
selection
for
fit
and
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Concept of
Interchangeability
As per ISO-IEC, interchangeability is the
ability of one product, process or service to
be used in place of other to fulfill the same
requirements.
This condition that exist between devices or
systems that exhibit equivalent functionality,
interface features and performance to allow
one to be exchanged for another, without
alteration, and achieve the same operational
service is called interchangeability.
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Example
If we buy a spark plug of scooter from the
market and then we find that it fits in the
threaded hole positioned in the cylindrical
head of a scooter automatically. We just need
to specify the size of the spark plug to the
shopkeeper. The threaded hole and spark
plug dimensions are standardized and
designed
to
fit
with
each
other.
Standardization
is
necessary
for
interchangeable parts and its important for
economic reasons.
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Example of
interchangeability
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Limits, Fits, Tolerances and ISO

Standards
In India we follow Indian Standards.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
recommends a hole-basis system
and the use of shaft-basis system is
also included.
This standard uses terms for
describing a system of limits and fits.
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Terminologies
Shaft : Serves for specification of all
outer elements of part, including
those elements, which do not have
cylindrical shape.
Hole : Inner elements of part
regardless of shape.
In an assembly, the shaft is
considered as the male part and hole
as female.
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Conventional diagram
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Terminologies
Basic size : The basic size or nominal
size is the standard size for the part
and is same for both hole and shaft.
Actual size : It is the dimension as
measured on a manufactured part. It
will never be equal to basic size and it
is within predetermined limits.
Limits of size : Maximum and
Minimum permissible size of the part.
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Terminologies
Maximum limit : Maximum size permitted
for the part.
Minimum limit : Minimum size permitted
for the part.
Zero line : In graphical representation of
limits and fits, a zero line is a straight line
to which the deviations are referred to.
It shows the basic size and it is line of
zero deviation.
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Terminologies
Deviation : Difference between a
size( actual or limit of size) and basic
size.
Upper deviation : Difference between
maximum limit and the basic size.
Lower deviation : Difference between
the minimum limit and corresponding
basic size.
Tolerance : Difference between
maximum limit and minimum limit.
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Fits
The relationship between two parts
to be assembled (hole and shaft)
with respect to the difference in their
sizes is called as fit.
Types :a) Clearance Fit
b) Transition Fit
c) Interference Fit
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Fits
Clearance fit : It is a fit that always
enables a clearance between the
hole and shaft. The lower size of hole
is greater or equal to the upper size
of shaft.
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Fits
Interference Fit : A fit which ensures
a interference between hole and
shaft. The upper limit size of hole is
smaller or at least equal to the lower
limit size of shaft.
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Fits
Transition Fit : It is a fit in which both
clearance and transition fit may
occur in an assembly.
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Indian Standards (ISO)

In Indian standard, the total range of
sizes upto 3150 mm has been
covered in two parts.
Sizes upto 500 mm are covered in
IS:919 and sizes from above 500 to
3150 mm are covered in IS :2101.
Holes designation : A to Z, ZA, ZB
and ZC.
Shaft designation : a to z, za , zb and
zc .
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Individual Tolerance of ISO

system
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Holes and Shafts

designation
Example : 55H7; 55 = Basic size;
H = Position of hole w.r.t zero
line;
7 = Tolerance grade i.e. IT7.
60m9;
60 = Basic size of shaft;

m = position of shaft w.r.t
zero line;
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Holes and Shafts

designation
i = 0.45(D)1/3 + 0.001D
where, D = Diameter;
Above formula is used for IT5 to IT16.
For IT01 = 0.3 + 0.008D;
For IT0 = 0.5 + 0.012D;
For IT1 = 0.8 + 0.02D.
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Casting
Casting is a process in which molten
metal flows by gravity or other force into
a mold where it solidifies in the shape of
the mold cavity.
Principle of casting : melt the metal, pour
it into a mold, and let it cool and solidify.
Yet there are many other factors that
must be considered to accomplish a
successful casting operation.
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Terminologies in casting
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Contd
In a typical sand casting molds : molds
consists of two halves.
One half is known a cope (upper one) and
second half is known as drag (lower one).
The line separating the two halves of
mold is called as parting line.
In sand castings the mold cavity is formed
by means of pattern, which is made of
wood, plastic, metal etc.
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Metal casting processes

Sand Casting processes
Permanent mold casting processes
Basic permanent mold casting process
Die casting
Centrifugal casting
Other Expendable mold casting processes
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Shell mold
Vacuum Mold
Expended Polystyrene process
Investment casting
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Basics of sand casting
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Investment casting
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Investment casting theory

1) Production of wax patterns;
2) Attachment of several patterns to sprue
tree to form pattern tree;
3) Coating of pattern tree with refractory
material;
4) Full mold is coated with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid;
5) Holding the mold in inverted position
and heated to melt the wax and permit
it to drip outvisitofmenotes-in.webnode.com
the cavityfor
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Contd
6) Pouring of molten metal
ensuring
that
all
the
contaminants are eliminated
the cavity;
7) Mold breaking from finished
and are separated from the
tree.
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after
wax
from
parts
sprue
225
Advantages
Parts of great complexity can be
cast;
Close
dimensional
control
tolerances
of
0.075mm
are
possible;
Good surface finish is possible;
Wax can be reused;
This is net shape process.
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Applications
Complex machinery parts,
Blades and other components for
turbine engines,
Jewelry and Dental fixtures.
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Permanent mold casting

process
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Steps in permanent mold

casting
1) Mold is preheated and coated;
2) Cores are inserted if necessary, and
mold is closed;
3) Molten metal is poured into the
mold;
4) Mold is opened and finished part is
taken out
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Theory
Metals commonly cast in permanent molds are
aluminum, magnesium, copper-based alloys
and cast iron.
Cores can be used to form interior parts in
casting/product.
If the cores are impossible to take out, sand
cores can be used, in which case the casting
process is referred as semi-permanent mold
casting.
Molds are commonly made of cast iron or steel.
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Advantages
Good surface finish and close
dimensional control,
More rapid solidification caused by
the metal mold results in finer grain
structure, so stronger castings are
produced,
Process is best suited to high volume
production and can be automated
accordingly,
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Applications
Automotive pistons,
Pump bodies,
Castings for aircrafts and missiles.
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Die Casting
Type of permanent mold casting.
Molten metal is injected into the
mold cavity under high pressure.
Typical pressure ranges from 7 to 350
Mpa.
Molds in this casting are called as
dies.
Pressure is maintained during
solidification after which mold is
opened and the part is removed.
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Die Casting Machines

Die casting operations are carried out in
die casting machines.
Modern die casting has a facility to close
the two halves of mold accurately and
keep them closed till the molten metal is
poured into the cavity.
Two types of machine : Hot chamber and
Cold chamber, differentiated by how the
molten metal is injected into the cavity.
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Hot Chamber Machine
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Steps in Hot Chamber

casting
1) With die closed and plunger
withdrawn, molten metal flows into
the chamber;
2) Plunger forces the metal in chamber
to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and
solidification;
3) Plunger is withdrawn, die is opened
and solidified part is ejected.
4) Finished part is produced.
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Theory
Typical pressure ranges from 7 to 35
MPa.
Mostly injection system is immersed
into the molten metal, thus its
application is limited to low melting
point metals that do not chemically
attack the plunger other mechanical
component.
Production rates 500 parts per hour.
Metals include zinc, tin, lead and
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Cold Chamber Die casting
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Theory of cold chamber die

casting
Molten metal is poured into an unheated
chamber from an external melting container,
and a piston is used to inject the metal under
high pressure into the die cavity.
Injection pressures in this case : 14 to 140
MPa.
Production cycles are less than hot chamber.
Nevertheless, this casting process is high
production operation.
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Contd
Materials commonly cast by this
process are aluminium, brass, and
magnesium alloys.
Molds are made up of tool steel,
mold
steel
,
tungsten
and
molybdenum.
Lubricants must also be sprayed to
prevent sticking.
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Advantages
High production rates;
Economical for large production
quantities;
Close tolerances upto 0.076 mm for
small parts;
Thin sections are possible, down to
0.5 mm;
Rapid cooling produces strong
castings;
Good surface finish.
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Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting refers to casting
method in which mold is rotated at
high speed so that centrifugal force
distributes the molten metal to the
outer regions of the die cavity.
Types :a) True centrifugal casting;
b) Semi centrifugal casting;
c) Centrifuge casting.
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True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into a rotating
mold to produce a tubular part.
Examples include : pipes, tubes,
bushings and rings.
Molten metal is poured into a horizontal
rotating mold at one end.
The high speed rotation results in
centrifugal forces that cause the metal
to take the shape of the mold cavity.
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True centrifugal casting
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True centrifugal casting

Castings made by true centrifugal
casting are characterized by high
density, especially in the outer
regions of the part.
Any impurities in the casting tend to
be on the inner wall and can be
removed by machining if necessary.
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Semi centrifugal casting

Centrifugal force is used to produce
solid castings.
The molds are designed with risers at
the center to supply feed metal.
Examples : wheels and pulleys
Expendable molds are often used in
semi-centrifugal casting
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Semi centrifugal casting
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Centrifuge Casting
The mold is designed with part
cavities away from the axis of
rotation, so that molten metal poured
into the mold is distributed to these
cavities by centrifugal force.
This process is used for smaller
parts.
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Centrifuge Casting
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Advantages
Castings of hollow parts needs no core;
Solid as well as hollow parts can be
manufactured with ease;
No pattern requirements in true centrifugal
casting;
Dense castings are produced by this
method;
More than one casting can be made
simultaneously, by having several mold
cavities.
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CO2 process
This process is essentially a sand molding
process where the sand mix does not
contain any oil, resin or clay as the bonding
agents.
This eliminates the use of dries and the
heating cycle.
Instead, the sand mix contains 2-6% of
sodium silicate solution.
This sand mix has a very high flowability to
fill up corners and intricate contours.
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Contd
The sand is hardened by passing CO2
for about a minute.
The CO2 gas forms a weak acid that
hydrolyses
the
sodium
silicate
solution to form amorphous silica
which acts as the bond.
Sodium silicate itself also provides
some bonding action.
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Limit Gauges
A limit gauge is fabricated to be a
reverse replica of the part dimension
and is designed to check the
dimension at one or more of its
tolerance limits.
A limit gauges consists of two gauges
in one piece:a) GO gauge.
b) NOT GO gauge.
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Limit Gauges
The GO gauge is used to check the
dimension at its maximum material
condition; that is the minimum size
for an internal feature and it is the
maximum size for an external
feature.
The NOT GO gauge is used to check
the dimension at its minimum
material condition.
Materials used to make gauges are
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Common Limit Gauges

Snap gauge for shafts (external
dimension).
Plug gauge for holes (internal
dimension).
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SNAP GAUGE
The snap gauge consists of C-shaped
frame with gaging surfaces located in
the jaws of the frame.
It has two gauge buttons, the first
being the GO gauge, and the second
being the NOT GO gauge.
This gauge is used for checking
outside dimensions like diameter,
width, thickness etc.
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SNAP GAUGE
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RING GAUGES
Ring gauges are used to for checking
cylindrical diameters.
For a given application, it has two
pair of gauges, one Go and second
NOT GO gauge.
Each gauge is a ring whose opening
is machined to one of the tolerance
limits of the part diameter.
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Plug gauge
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Advanced Manufacturing Processes (ALL SLIDES Gaurav Arora)

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Advanced Manufacturing Processes (ALL SLIDES Gaurav Arora)

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ADVANCED MANUFACTURING

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How could we do that?

By molding the raw material.

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Material Removal or Machining (Subtractive)

Deforming Processes (Formative)

Joining or Fabrication (Assembling)

Finishing and Surface Treatment.

Bulk Property Enhancing Processes (Heat

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High Energy Rate

slides, tutorial sheet, attendance,

EBM, LBW, USW etc

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Type of work material &

Have Relatively High Melting Temperature: Can

Poor Machinability: AMPs are commonly preferred.

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Type of work material &

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Type of work material &

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Batch Size or Production

Deforming processes so as to Offset the Relatively

Machining Processes Up to 500

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Batch Size or Production

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MERCHANT CIRCLE DIAGRAM (MCD)

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MCD with cutting forces

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From the work side

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From the tool side

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Proper Use of MCD

Determination of several other

Easy and quick evaluation of

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Limiting Conditions for MCD

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Methods for MCD numerical

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THESE PROCESSES USE VARIOUS

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Classification of Advanced Machining Processes

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Abrasive Jet Machining

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Gas (composition, pressure and

Nozzle ( geometry, material,

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