CHAPTER 8

DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM COMPONENT

ABIOTIC
COMPONENT

BIOTIC
COMPONENT

Topography
Water

Microclimate

ABIOTIC COMPONENT
The non living components
of an ecosystem

pH value

Humidity

Temperature

Light intensity

pH value
the pH value of soil and water has important
effect on the types of organisms
a drastic change in pH may kill the organisms
Temperature
affects the physiological activities of
organisms
most of organisms cannot tolerate extremes
temperatures

Light intensity
affects the distribution and growth of organisms
the sun is the source of energy
some plants show adaptation to reach the light
most animal need sunlight but some show
adaptation to live in the dark
Humidity
is the amount of water vapour in the air
plant and animal that live in wet have special
adaptation

Water
important for living process in all organisms
but some organisms are able to survive under
condition where there is a limited supply of water
such as camel and cactus
Microclimate
Refers to local climate in a small area
Humidity, temperature and light intensity affect the
microclimates

Topography
influence local climate and soil development
the main factor is altitude and aspect
higher altitude : lower atmospheric pressure and
temperature so different plants growing at different
altitude
sloppy areas receive more sunlight compared to
valley
Gradient : steepness of a slope cause a faster
drainage and run off the water

Producers

Consumers
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
The living components
in an ecosystem

Decomposers

Producers
mainly green plants
manufacture complex organic food substances
from raw materials
Convert light energy chemical energy
affect the lives of other organisms because they
start the food chain and food web

Consumers
Obtain their energy from the other organisms they
feed on
Cannot make their own food : heterotrophs
(herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, saprophytes or
decomposers )
Decomposers
break down dead organisms through the
decomposition process
the product in this process is returned to environment
and will used again by green plants
saprophytic fungi and saprophytic bacteria

CLASSIFICATION OF BIOTIC COMPONENTS INTO TROPHIC LEVEL

Food chain
A series of organisms through which energy is transferred in the
form of food
trophic level - each stages in the food change and can be shown
in the form of pyramid number
pyramid number show the interaction between a producers and
consumers and the number of organisms
during food transfer from one trophic level to next level a lot of
energy is lost ( through undigested matter, excretory products, lost
as heat during respiration)
90% : energy is lost
10% : transfer from one trophic level to the next

Food web

in a community, food chains are linked together to form a

food web
gives a more complete picture of the feeding relationship in a
community

INTERACTION BETWEEN
ORGANISMS

Symbiosis

Saprophytism

Commensalism

Mutualism

Prey-predator

Parasitism

Competition

Symbiosis
Interaction in which there is a close and
permanent relationship between two specific
organisms
One species : benefits
One species : unaffected, harmed or helped

Symbiosis
Commensalism
(+,0)
example
- clown fish &
sea anemones
- pigeon orchid

Epiphytes
(plant)

Epizoics
(animal)

+ : benefits
0 : neither benefit
nor harm
- : harm

Mutualism

Parasitism

(+,+)

(+,-)

example

example

- lichens

- flea

- root nodules

- tapeworm

Ectoparasite

Endoparasite

Saprophytism
A type of interaction in which living organisms obtain
food from dead and decaying organic matter
Enzymes are secreted onto the food
and digestion occurs outside the cell
Example : saprophyte (plant) : fungus
saprozoite (animal) : earthworm

Prey-predator
(+ ,- )
predator
- kills other animal for food
- larger and fewer in number than its prey
- the number of predator affects the
size of prey population
prey
- the animal that kill by the predator
- must be able to protect itself from being killed
example : owls & snakes, frogs & snakes

Number

prey

predator
Time

Competition
An interaction between organisms which live together
In a habitat and compete for the same resources that are
in limited supply

Intraspecific
Competition between individuals
of the same species
Compete for light, water,
space and nutrients
Example : Bryophyllum sp

Interspecific
Competition between individuals
of different species
Example : paramecium aurelia
& paramecium caudatum

the winner
Number

the loser

Time

Interspecific competition

THE PROCESS OF COLONISATION AND SUCCESSION

IN AN ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM
An ecological system formed by the interaction of
living organisms and their non-living environment
Example : Mangrove, swamp, desert, marine forest
COMMUNITY
A population of organisms living together within the
same habitat
represent biotic components of an ecosystem
Example : various group of organisms living in forest

POPULATION
A group of individuals of the same species occupying
the same habitat
expressed by density
The rate of change of a population density depends on
birth rate, death rate and migration
SPECIES
A group of closely related organisms which are
capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring

ECOSYSTEM

COMMUNITY

POPULATION

SPECIES

HABITAT
The place where the organism lives
organism obtain its food, shelter and reproduces in its
habitat
example : ponds, rivers, forests
within an ecosystem there will be several habitats
microhabitat : smaller division of an a habitat

NICHE
Is the function of an organism or the role it plays in the
habitat
organisms can live in the same habitat but they occupy
different niches
includes its habitat, its interaction, the types of food it
consumes, the range of temperature it tolerate and the
spaces it occupies
Example : a caterpillar and aphid live in the same habitat
(caterpillar eats the leaf but aphid sucks sap from the leaf)

Pond

Mangrove swamp

COLONISASION
Occurs in newly formed areas where no life
previously existed
The first colonisers : pioneer species
Special adaptation of pioneer species
1) hardy plant
3) have good dense root system (bind sand
particles and hold water + humus)
4) have short life cycle
5) when die, their remains add to humus content
Examples : grasses, ferns & sedges

SUCCESSION
The process in which one community changes its
environment so that it is replaced by another
community
The gradual & continuous process
Leads to a final and stable community which is in
equilibrium with its environment and is known as climax
community
Successor species : a series of plant that replaced the
pioneer species (herbaceous plant)
Successor :
1) grow bigger than pioneer thus reduced the amount
of
sunlight
2) have small wind- dispersable seeds
(able to spread and grow rapidly)
3) can change the structure and quality of soil for
larger plant to grow example shrubs

 Dominant species : grow faster and dominate the

slower growing pioneer and successor species
Dominant species turn modify the environment
which allows larger tree to grow
The larger trees provide shade and the shrubs
cannot compete and are replaced by forest floor
species
Ecological succession leads to a relatively stable
community which is a climax community
EXAMPLE :
From bare ground forest

COLONISATION & SUCCESSION IN DISUSED

PONDS
1

Submerged/
sunken plant
Plankton

Begin pioneer species which is submerged plant like Hydrilla sp.,

Cabomba sp., Elodea sp.
Submerged species are autotrophs (carry out photosynthesis)
When they die, they contributes debris/humus (which supplies
nutrients for next group, successor)
The decomposition of dead pioneers species & soil erosion will add
silt & reduce water level
The new environment is now suitable for 1st successor (floating
plant)

Floating
plant

The floating plant like Lemna sp., Eichornia sp., Nymphea sp. will
replace the pioneer group
They have broad leaves which cover the water surface
The pioneer group receive less light for photosynthesis
Thus, the population of pioneer group decreases
The accumulation of humus increases gradually
The pond become shallower
This leads to the growth of 2nd successor (emergent/amphibian
palnt)

Emergent/
amphibian
plant

The emergent plant such as cattails & sedges (Thypa sp., Cyperus
sp.) will replace the floating plants
They can live both water and on land
In earlier stages, these plant grow near the pond side
As the accumulation of humus and silt increases, they will dominate
further in until the whole pond becomes land

Grasses

The accumulation of humus makes land more fertile

The creepers, herb plants and shrub will replace the emergent
plants
The land now covered by bushes

Over a period of time, the bushes will replaced by a primary

forest
Finally, it reaches the climax community
Example :
tropical rain forest in Malaysia

Hydrilla sp.
(water
weed)

Elodea sp.
(water weed)

Submerged/ sunken plant

Cabomba sp.
(fan wort)

Lemna sp.
(duck weed)

Eichornia sp.
(water hyacinth)

Floating plant

Nymphaea sp.
(water lily)

Thypa sp. (cattails)

Cyperus sp. (sedges)

Emergent / amphibian plant

Fimbristylis sp. (sedges)

MANGROVE SWAMP

MANGROVE SWAMP
Found in tropical & subtropical regions
where freshwater meets salt water
Characteristics :
1) Soft & muddy soil
2) High concentration of salt
3) Low level of oxygen
4) Exposed to high intensities of sunlight
& strong wind

 4 species of mangrove :
1) Avicennia sp.
2) Sonneratia sp.
3) Rhizophora sp.
4) Brugeria sp.
The mangrove plants are well adapted to
the harsh conditions of these regions.

ADAPTATIONS OF MANGROVE
PLANTS
PROBLEMS

ADAPTATIONS

Soft, muddy soil

Strong coastal wind

Avicennia sp. : underground cable

roots (long & branch)
Rhizophora sp. : prop roots
(aerial roots)- for anchor &
aeration

Waterlogged conditions of Avicennia sp. : breathing roots

soil ( amount of O2)
(pneumatophores), grow
vertically upwards
Gaseous exchange through
lenticels (on the bark)

Direct exposure to the sun

( rate of transpiration)

Leaves are covered by a thick

layer of cuticle
Leaves are thick & succulent
(able to store water)

High salinity of the sea water

(soil hypertonic compared to
the cell sap of the root cells)

The cell sap in the roots cells

has a higher osmotic
pressure (hypertonic) than the
soil.
The excess salt is excreted as
crystalline salt from
hydatodes (pores on the
lower epidermis)

Seeds which fall onto the

ground die (submerged in the
soft & waterlogged)

Viviparity : seeds are able to

germinate while still attached
to the mother plant

Props roots

Excretion of crystalline
salt from hydathodes

Pneumatophores

Viviparity

Cable roots

Successor species
Pioneer species
Successor species
Adaptations :
buttress roots
Adaptations :
Adaptations:
pnematophores
props roots
viviparous seedlings
aerenchyma tissue
hydatodes
viviparous seedlings
thick & succulent leaves
waxy cuticles

COLONISATION & SUCCESSION IN MANGROVE

SWAMPS

COLONISATION
The pioneer species : Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp.
The extensive roots system of Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp. collect
sediments & organic matter
As times passes, the soil become more compact & firm
SUCCESSION
Rhizophora sp. replaces the pioneer species
The arcing roots of Rhizophora sp. trap silt & mud, creating a firmer
soil structure.
As times passes, the ground becomes higher & the soil becomes
drier
Bruguiera sp. replaces Rhizophora sp.
The buttress roots of Bruguiera sp. Form loops which protrude from
the soil to trap more silt and mud. The soil structure changes
Over time, terrestrial plants ( Nypa fruticans & Pandanus sp. replace
Bruguiera sp.
As times passes, the tropical plants replace the terrestrial plants to
form climax community

POPULATION ECOLOGY
Population ecology : a branch of ecology that
studies the structure and dynamics of populations
Population density : the number of organisms per
unit area of the habitat
Population density is affected by abiotic, biotic, birth
rate, death rate immigration & emigration.
Sampling technique : estimate the total population
size of the organisms
Type of sampling technique :
1) quadrat sampling technique (plant)
2) the capture, mark, release & recapture
technique (animal)

Quadrat sampling
technique (plant)

Used to estimating the size of plant populations

Made from a metal or a wooden frame
The quadrat is placed randomly in the ecosystem

FORMULA
Frequency : the number of times a particular species is found present
when a quadrat is thrown a certain number of times
Frequency : Number of quadrats containing the species
X 100%
Number of quadrats

Density : the mean number of individuals of a species per unit area

Density : Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrats
Number of quadrats X quadrat area

Percentage coverage : an indication of how much area of the quadrat

is occupied by a species.
Percentage coverage : Aerial coverage of all quadrats (m2)
X 100%
Number of quadrats X quadrat area

Capture, mark, release &

recapture technique (animal)

Used to estimate the populations of mobile animals

The method :
1) A specific animal sample is captured
2) The animal is marked (a ring, a tag or waterproof coloured ink/paint).
3) The marked animals are released into the general population
4) After suitable period of time, a second sample are recaptured
5 ) The number of marked animal is recorded

FORMULA
Population size : (no of individuals in the 1st sample) X (no of individuals in the 2nd sample)
no of marked individuals recaptured

8.4 BIODIVERSITY
Refers to the diverse species of plants and
animals interacting with one another on Earth
Taxonomy : a branch of biology concerned with
identifying, describing and
naming organisms
Organism are classified into 5 major kingdoms :
1) Monera
2) Protista
3) Fungi
4) Plantae
5) Animalia

Monera
N : Monera
C : - prokaryotic organisms (unicellular organisms)
- no distinct nuclear membrane
- The cell wall is present but lack of both membrane-bound
nuclei and
organelles
- No tissues formation
- They can be photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic
E : Bacteria and cynobacteria

Protista
N : Protista
C : - have a nuclear and organelles that surrounded by
membrane
- may be unicellular or multicellular (algae and protozoa)
- they can either be heterotrophic or autotrophic or even
both
- the cell of multicellular, are not specialised to perform
specific functions
in the organisms
- some have both plant and animal characteristic
E : Amoeba, Paramecium, Spirogyra and Chlamydomonas

Fungi
N : Fungi
C : - heterotrophic multicellular and some are unicellular
- the cell walls of fungi contain chitin
- the main bodies consists of network of thread-like
hyphae called mycelium
- do not chlorophyll
- produce spores for reproduction
- become saprophytic and some are parasitisms
E : Mould (Mucor), mushrooms and yeast

Plantae
N : Plantae
C : - include all land plants
- have a chlorophyll and carry out
photosynthesis
- multicellular
- cells are specialise into tissues
E : mosses, fern, conifers and flowering and nonflowering plant

Animalia
N : Animalia
C : - multicellular, heterotrophic and eukaryotes
- animal cell do not have cell wall
- mobile
- do not have chlorophyll
E : invertebrate, fish, reptiles,, bird and mammals

The Hierarchy in the Classification of Organism

Kingdom
Phylum

A group of organisms sharing certain basic

features
A group of organisms has closely
related classes

Class

A group of organisms has closely

related order

Order

A group of organisms has closely

related families

Family

A group of organisms has closely

related genera

Genus

A group of organisms has closely

related species

Species

A group of organisms are very similar,

but they still have individual different

Linnaeus Binomial System Classification

1. The modern system of naming animals and plants is
based on the Linnaeus Binomial System develop by
Carolus Linnaeus
2. The Linnaeus Binomial System of classification uses
two words to name every species of organisms
found.
i) the first word in the name refers to the genus
ii) the second word is the specific name
3. The characteristics of the system are as follows:
i) both names are in Latin words
ii) the name of the genus is written first and the first
letter should be

Scientific names of some local organisms

Common name

Scientific name

Paddy

Oryza sativa

Durian

Durio zibethinus

Oil palm

Elaeis guineensis

Rambutan

Nephelium lappacium

Sugar cane

Saccharum
officinarum

Chicken

Gallus domesticus

Toad

Bufo melanosticus

Frog

Rana erythraeu

The Hierarchy in the Classification of Organism

Kingdom

Animalia

Animalia

Phylum

Chordata

Chordata

Class

Mammalia

Mammalia

Order

Carnivora

Carnivora

Family

Canidae

Canidae

Genus

Canis

Canis

Species

familiaris

lupus

Dog

Wolf

The Importance of Biodiversity

Economic
resources
Sources of
food

Shelter

Importance of
Biodiversity

Sources of
medicine

Clean air

Clean
drinking
water

8.5 The impact of microorganisms on life

Microorganisms are tiny organisms that

can only seen clearly under the
microscope
Microorganism are classified into 5 major
types :
1) Virus
2) Bacteria
3) Algae
4) Protozoa
5) Fungi

Bacteria
N : Bacteria
C : - unicellular organisms which have basic cell
structure that
includes a cell wall, plasma membrane and
DNA that is not
enclosed in a membrane
- have a cell walls made of a polymer called
peptidoglycan
- certain bacteria form spores under
unfavourable conditions
- their shape may be spherical (coccus), rod
shape, (bacillus) or
spiral (spirilium)

Algae
N : Algae
C : - photosynthetic eukaryotic plant-like organisms
in the
kingdom protista
- have a chlorophyll and chloroplast
- cell walls are made of cellulose
- do not have leaves, stems or roots
E : phytoplankton and Spirogyra sp.

Fungi
N : Fungi
C : - heterotrophic multicellular or unicellular
- do not have chlorophyll
- have a cell walls made up of chitin
- fungi feed by secreting enzymes that break the
surrounding
organic material down into simple molecules
before they are
absorbed
E : Mucor sp. and yeast

Protozoa
N : Protozoa
C : - unicellular organism
- have nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma
membrane
- capable carry out living processes such as
respiration,
reproduction and excretion
- they have flagella, cilia or pseudopodia to
move
E : Euglena sp., Paramecium sp., Amoeba sp.

Viruses
N : Viruses
C : - is not a living cell because it cannot survive or reproduce
on its own outside
the host
- is composed of DNA and RNA, surrounded by a protein
coat
- can be crystallised
E : T4 bacteriophage and tobacco mosaic virus

ffect of Abiotic Components on the Activity of Microorg

1.Concentration of nutrient:
- all microorganisms except viruses need nutrient
and water for
reproduction and growth.
- without nutrient and water, microorganisms will
die or form
spores
2. pH
- most bacteria prefer slightly alkaline condition (pH
around 7.4)
- moulds, yeast and protozoa (pH between 4.5 and
5.0)

3. Temperature
- most microorganisms are inactive at low temperatures
- optimum temperature for most microorganisms is between 35
C and 40 C
- beyond 60 C the growth of microorganisms is inhibited
- microorganisms and their spores can only be destroyed when
they are sterilized at a temperature of about 121 C
4. Light intensity
- microorganisms prefer place which are dark or have a low
light intensity
- a high intensity of sunlight and ultraviolet rays can kill
microorganisms
- however, algae and photosynthetic bacteria need light to
photosynthesis

The Role of Useful Microorganisms in the Ecosystem

1. Digestion:
- in stomach, intestine or caecum of herbivors have a
bacteria that produce
cellulases enzymes to digest cellulose to simple sugars
- simple sugar absorbed by the herbivore and symbiotic
bacteria
- Termite have a Trichonympha sp. (flagellated protozoan)
which is help to digest
cellulose from the wood
2. Medicine
- fungi produce antibiotic (prevent the growth of bacteria)
- Examples: Penicillium notatum gonorrhoea, syphilis,
lung infection

3. Decomposition:
- bacteria and saprophytic fungus are microorganisms that feed on
dead organic matter to get energy for their life processes.
- play an importance role in the natural cycles of the elements
such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle
4. Industry
- production of alcohol using yeast through the fermentation
process of sugar,
starch or grains
- production of vinegar the bacterium, Acetobacter, acts on
alcohol to produce
vinegar (ethanoic acid)
- Making bread using yeast and sodium bicarbonate to produce
carbon dioxide
to rises the bread dough
- Production of butter cream is made sour by the action of
bacteria. Bacteria

4. Industry
- production of fermented milk tairu and yogurt
- the bacteria,
Lactobacillus sp. and
Streptococcus sp.
and yeast
- the milk will
become sour and has
smell of alcohol
- production of vitamins Vitamin B2 yeast
- Vitamin D yeast and
bacterium
- textile industry bacteria are use to decomposed
the soft plant

List the function of microorganism in the nitrogen

cycle above
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Process: Nitrogen Fixation
1.

Rhizobium sp.

(in root nodule)

Clostridium sp.
Anabaena sp.
Nostoc sp. (cyanobacteria)
Azotobactor sp.

(live
freely in soil)
fix atmosphere nitrogen into nitrate (absorb by
plant & animal)

 Putrefying bacteria and fungi

Process: Decomposition
2. Help in putrefaction and decomposition
of organic matter into
ammonia NH3

 Nitrifying bacteria
Process: Nitrification
3.

Nitrosomonas sp.
Nitrococcus sp.
Changes ammonia into nitrite, NO2 4.
Nitrobacter sp.
Changes nitrite into nitrate, NO3 -

 Denitrifying bacteria
Process: Denitrification
5. Denitrifying bacteria, changes nitrate
into nitrogen

Pathogens, Vectors and Symptoms of Some Diseases

Disease

Pathogens

Vector

TB

Bacteria

Symptoms
-Feeling tired
-Constant
coughing
-Coughing out
blood

Method of
infection
Droplet infection,
dust, food and
drinks that are
contaminated

Cholera Bacteria (Vibrio

sp.)

House
fly

-Vomiting
Water or food that is
-Serious diarrhea contaminated

Food
poisoni
ng

Bacteria, fungi

House
fly

-Vomiting
-Diarrhoea
-Abdominal
pains
-Fever

Water or food that is

contaminated

Cold

Virus

- Fever,
Headache
- Muscle pain

Through the air

Pathogens, Vectors and Symptoms of Some Diseases

Disease

Patho
gens

Dengue

Virus

Mumps

Virus

Vector
Mosquito, Aedes
aegypti

Symptoms

Method of
infection

- High fever
- Headache
-Rashes
- Pain at the joint
-Bleeding from the
nose, gums and
tooth sockets

Mosquito
bite

- Fever
- Painful feeling
when
eating
-Difficulty opening
the
mouth
-Soft swelling in
front and
below the ears

Through the
air

Disease

Pathogen
s

Vector

Symptoms

AIDS

Virus
(HIV 1 and
HIV 2)

- Fever
-Loss of body weight
-Tiredness
-Candidiasis around
the mouth and throat
-Pneumonia
-Kaposiss sarcoma

Malaria

SARS

Protozoa
Mosquit - Fever
(Plasmodiu
o
-Headache
m)
- Muscle pain
-Shivering
Virus

- High fever
-Cry cough
-Shortness of breath
or breathing difficulty
-Pneumonia
-Headache, muscular
stiffness

Method of
infection
-Through sexual
contact with a
person infected
with HIV
- Transfusion of
blood from a HIV
victim
-Sharing of
injection needles
Mosquito bite

-Droplet infection
touch
- Close contact with
someone who has
SARS
-Body secretion

Transmission of Microorganisms
1.Through five ways :
i) the air
ii) touch
iii) food
iv) vectors
v) water

Controlling Pathogens
Vaccines

Antibiotics

Are modified or
weakened forms of
bacteria or viruses. Is a
suspension of dead
bacteria or viruses which
is inoculated into our
body to induce the
production of antibodies.
of controllingExamples of vaccine are
pathogens
Sabine vaccine and BCG

Penicillin and
streptomycin are
chemicals produced
by microorganisms
which inhibit the
growth or kill other
microorganisms,
especially bacteria
Methods

Antiseptics

Disinfectants

Are used on cuts and

wounds to kill and
inhibit the growth of
microorganisms.
Examples of
antiseptics are
acriflavin and iodine

Use to kill
microorganisms on the
floor, buildings or
furniture and sterilise
surgical equipment.
Example : phenol,
formaldehyde and